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LANDSCAPE  PLANNING 
FOR  SMALL  HOMES 


AGRIC.  LAND.  DESIGN 
101  AGRICULTURE  HALL 


LANDSCAPE    PLANNING 
FOR  SMALL  HOMES 


^  1922 

E.  GORTON  DAVIS 

Department  of  Landscape  Architecture 
College  o    Arch  tecture,  Cornell  Univers  ty 


LANDSCAPE 
ARCHITECTURE 


GIFT 


CHAPTER  I 


WHAT  IS  LANDSCAPE  AECHITECTURE? 

When  a  group  of  persons  see  parks  being  graded  and  planted,  or  a  neighbor's 
yard  being  laid  out,  one  will  say  that  it  is  "landscape  gardening,"  another  calls 
it  "landscape  aichitecture,"  and  still  another  remarks  that  it  is  "fine  gardening," 
Is  it  possible  that  any  one  of  these  terms  means  the  same  to  all  three  persons,  or 
to  others?  A  florist  may  think  of  landscape  gardening  in  terms  of  "bedding-out" 
plants  and  of  round  or  square  beds  cut  out  of  the  lawn.  A  gardener  or  horticul- 
turist may  have  visions,  of  hardy-perennial  flower  borders.  An  architect  perhaps 
looks  for  terraces,  balustrades,  and  formal  gardens,  and  if  these  be  wanting  he 
feels  but  little  concerned.  Others  may  expect  ample  lawns  scattered  over  with 
fine  trees  and  shrubs. 

If  the  man  who  is  laying  out  the  park  is  asked  what  he  calls  himself,  he  may 
say  he  is  a  gardener,  or  a  florist,  or  a  contractor  ;  or  it  may  be  that  he  styles  himself 
a  landscape  gardener  or  a  garden  architect.  However,  this  will  depend  upon 
circumstances.  He  may  be  a  very  successful  man  in  a  small  territory,  as  in  a 
suburb  of  a  large  city,  or  even  in  several  adjoining  cities.  Perhaps  he  has  adopted 
the  title  of  the  man  from  whom  he  learned  the  rudiments  of  his  profession,  or  from 
the  custom  of  the  school  at  which  he  prepared  himself.  But  whatever  the  circum- 
stances with  respect  to  any  individual  among  the  multitude  claiming  to  be  of  this 
profession,  one  finds  little  uniformity  in  the  kind  of  work  they  do,  in  the  scope  of 
their  activities,  in  the  name  by  which  they  designate  their  profession,  in  their  point 
of  view,  and  in  their  training  and  preparation.  Is  it  to  be  wondered,  then,  that 
the  public  looks  on  with  some  skepticism  and  with  a  tendency  to  underrate  the 
profession? 

To  return  to  the  scene  of  the  neighboring  yard  which  is  being  laid  out  —  to  the 
crowd  that  gathers  on  the  sidewalk  to  watch  the  work  going  on  inside  the  fence. 
To  most  of  these  this  landscape  gardener  or  landscape  architect  is  merely  the  man 
who  "plants  bushes."  Some  have  noticed  that  he  also  makes  roads  and  walks, 
but  to  the  crowd  this  seems  unlikely.  Others  say  that  he  has  trees  and  shrubs  for 
sale.  But  some  one  ventures  the  remark  that  his  bushes  are  procured  from  a 
nursery,  and  the  same  individual  is  also  quite  certain  that  this  man,  whose  func- 
tion is  so  much  in  question,  only  makes  plans  and  looks  after  the  work.  Another 
onlooker  remembers  that  a  large  place  nearby  had  been  laid  out  a  few  years  ago, 
and  that  there  a  great  number  of  workmen  had  been  employed  all  summer.  There 
had  been  a  boss  who  hired  the  local  contractors  to  do  the  grading,  the  road- 
building,  and  to  lay  the  drains.  Near  the  house  had  been  constructed  a  formal 
garden  with  walls,  steps,  flowers,  and  a  pool  of  water.  Carpenters  had  built  a 
fine  fence  all  about  the  place,  and,  finally,  quantities  of  trees  and  shrubs  had  been 
planted  everywhere  about  the  grounds.  Some  remembered  that  periodically  a 
well-dressed  man  from  a  distant  city  had  made  visits,  and  had  been  seen  talking 
with  the  boss  and  with  the  owner  of  the  place.  But  what  was  the  use  of  all  this 
expense,  when  one  could  get  ideas  from  the  magazines  and  hire  a  local  man  to  do 
the  work? 


€04 


There  is  always  a  curious  crowd,  and  of  course  its  speculations  are  not  always  a 
true  indication  of  public  opinion.  However,  a  far  more  intelligent  point  of  view 
on  the  part  of  the  public  is  much  to  be  desired  regarding  landscape  architecture — 
what  it  is,  and  what  it  may  do  for  every  home  owner.  The  public  is  more  than 
curious.  It  is  genuinely  interested!  Most  home  owners,  regardless  of  station 
or  income,  desire  to  make  their  surroundings  more  attractive,  and  most  of  them 
actually  attempt  it,  although  perhaps  not  with  very  great  success.  However, 
of  those  who  desire  attractive  yards,  how  many  realize  that  at  the  same  time 
their  yards  may  be  made  more  useful  and  more  convenient? 

This  general  interest  has  grown  to  such  proportions  that  the  nurserymen  have 
for  some  time  been  pressed,  by  those  buying  plants,  to  give  advice  for  their  arrange- 
ment and  planting.  In  many  cases  there  is  no  one  else  at  hand  to  furnish  such 
advice.  Some  nurseries  have  tried  to  sidestep  this  question,  others  have  refused 
to  give  any  suggestions,  and  others,  seeing  therein  an  opportunity  to  increase  their 
sales,  have  established  landscape  departments,  with  or  without  charge,  according 
to  what  has  seemed  most  feasible.  Some  landscape  architects  complain  that  the 
nurseries  should  not  undertake  landscape  work.  But  most  professional  land- 
scape architects  do  not  want,  and  many  will  not  even  accept,  what  is  termed 
"small  business,"  as  they  say  it  does  not  pay.  So  here  is  a  demand  for  a  much- 
needed  service,  with  no  competition,  and  with  little  interest  shown  by  those  best 
able  to  supply  the  need. 

To  the  nurseryman  and  the  florist,  the  requests  of  their  patrons  for  advice  in 
planning  and  planting  appears  as  an  obstacle  to  their  sales.  The  gardener  accord- 
ingly takes  down  his  florist  sign  and  puts  up  one  which  reads  "landscape  gardener." 
He  has  observed  the  work  on  large  places  in  his  vicinity,  and  keeps  an  open  eye  for 
ideas.  As  small  jobs  are  abundant,  he  finds  plenty  of  practice,  and  with  this 
comesconfidence.  Similarly,  the  nurseryman  receives  calls  from  nearby  residents 
who  say  they  would  like  some  shrubs,  if  men  can  be  sent  from  the  nursery  to 
plant  them.  As  he  is  a  business  man,  he  meets  the  demand — he  adapts  himself 
and  his  organization  to  public  demands.  To  do  this  adequately,  he  must  find 
someone  capable  of  taking  the  responsibility  of  giving  advice  and  of  directing 
planting  operations.  Of  course  he  muft  make  this  new  man  pay,  possibly  by 
increasing  the  charges  for  his  stock,  by  charging  an  extra  fee  for  his  services, 
or  by  materially  augmenting  his  nursery  sales. .  The  new  man  must  in  some  way 
earn  his  salary.  Moreover,  he  himself  wishes  to  make  good,  and  so  goes  after 
business,  and  also  after  larger  work  on  larger  residences.  Eventually  he  reaches 
out  for  the  big  estates  which  the  landscape  architect  has  hitherto  considered  his 
legitimate  and  exclusive  field  of  activity. 

It  cannot  be  expected  that  the  man  whose  main  interest,  training,  and  experi- 
ence is  that  of  growing  and  selling  plants  will  also  understand  the  theory  of  their 
design,and  the  arrangement  of  plants  is  but  a  part  of  the  whole  operation  of 
planning,  or,  to  speak  more  technically,  of  "designing."  Designing  includes  not 
only  the  arrangement  of  plants,  but  of  al?  objects  and  areas  within  a  property. 
The  man  of  ideals,  the  artist  trained  in  design  and  especially  in  landscape  design , 
should  best  know  how  to  deal  with  the  practical  as  well  as  with  the  artistic  possi- 
bilities of  any  piece  of  land,  park,  or  residence,  as  these  fall  within  the  scope  of 
design  The  work  of  the  landscape  architect  requires  a  special  genius,  training, 
and  experience,  just  as  does  that  of  the  nurseryman  or  of  any  other  business  or 


profession.  But  if  the  artist  will  not  accept  little  jobs,  where  can  persons  of  mod- 
erate means  obtain  the  best  advice? 

In  general  business  there  is  to  be  seen  a  parallel  to  this  situation.  There  are 
many  kinds  of  stores,  some  making  sales  of  large  values,  and  others  of  smaller 
values  but  in  greater  volume.  Business  men  have  found  a  way  of  making  satis- 
factory profits  not  only  from  large  sales  but  also  from  a  great  volume  of  small 
sales.  Perhaps  it  is  not  reasonable  to  draw  a  parallel  between  general  business 
and  the  practice  of  an  artist's  profession.  It  is  to  be  hoped,  however,  that  in  a 
measure  this  comparison  is  possible,  and  that  it  will  succeed  in  interesting  design- 
ers in  the  small-residence  problems  and  in  their  possibilities.  Indeed,  those  who 
may  undertake  to  deal  with  the  thousands  of  small -residence  jobs  will  very  likely 
discover  that  a  business  of  great  volume  awaits  them. 

But  why,  in  the  past,  have  landscape  architects  failed  to  handle  small  jobs  with 
profit?  It  would  be  a  difficult  and  tedious  task  to  make  a  searching  inquiry  into 
the  small- job  experiences  of  those  men  who  are  today  the  representative  land- 
scape architects ;  nor  could  a  single  person  speak  for  them  all.  Until  comparative- 
ly recent  times,  no  one  wanted  their  services  except  a  few  persons  owning  expen- 
sive homes  and  whose  opportunities  in  life  had  shown  them,  at  home  and  abroad, 
the  possibilities  of  beautiful  artificial  gardens  or  of  parklike  scenery.  Travel, 
especially  in  Europe,  has  always  been  limited  to  those  of  means,  and  not  all  of 
those  who  see  and  know  about  fine  gardens  become  sufficiently  interested  in  them 
to  want  them.  Persons  who  wanted  fine  gardens  and  could  afford  them,  until 
quite  recently,  were  few  and  far  between.  To  reach  these  individuals,  the  land- 
scape architect  was  subject  to  heavy  expense  in  travel  and  to  considerable  loss  of 
time.  In  preparation  for  his  profession,  a  long  period  of  study  and  varied  experi- 
ence at  home  and  abroad  had  been  necessary.  Furthermore,  as  a  business  venture 
the  profession  was  a  precarious  one,  promising  at  best  no  immediate  success,  and 
requiring  a  number  of  years  for  the  establishment  of  business  on  a  paying 
basis.  In  the  past,  only  a  man  of  means  and  of  great  interest  in  his  chosen  pro- 
fession could  afford  to  become  a  landscape  architect;  and  it  is  evident  that  he 
would  necessarily  have  to  charge  a  considerable  amount  for  his  time,  whatever  his 
services. 

In  recent  years,  the  employment  of  either  a  landscape  architect  or  a  local  garden- 
er to  do  the  grading  and  planting  about  new  buildings  has  become  the  common 
practice.  The  work  is  not  all  good,  but  the  plants  are  pretty!  The  thousands 
of  families  that  are  constantly  filling  up  new  subdivisions  in  all  the  cities  see 
other  "pretty"  front  yards  or  larger  estates,  and  desire  to  follow  suit.  Here  is  the 
new  demand  for  landscape  advice  — from  the  small -home  owners.  Is*  this  demand 
for  really  good  advice,  or  is  the  call  merely  for  the  untrained  opinion  of  the  local 
gardener  or  of  the  nursery-plantsman?  Among  the  owners  of  small  homes,  as 
well  as  among  the  wealthy,  there  are  many  persons  having  comparatively  little 
feeling  for  art.  They  have  not  had  time  to  develop  such  an  appreciation.  Most 
persons  like  good  landscape  work  when  they  see  it,  but  they  may  not  so  understand 
and  appreciate  it  as  to  be  able  to  distinguish  the  good  from  the  poor.  No  ap- 
preciable difference  may  be  noticed  by  the  layman  between  the  work  of  the 
skilled  designer  and  that  of  the  man  trained  only  as  a  gardener,  especially  if  the 
examples  of  both  types  of  work  are  not  sufficiently  near  each  other  to  make  the 
contrast  indisputably  evident  to  even  the  uninitiated.  The  idea  that  the 


gardener  can  give  more  attention  to  the  practical  details  of  planting  appeals. 
Also,  the  charges  of  the  local  gardener  are  more  consistent  with  the  reasonable 
expenditures  for  work  about  the  small  home. 

Persons  of  somewhat  broader  experience  and  who  perhaps  have  seen  good  land- 
scape work,  say  they  "want  the  best  advice,"  and  they  engage  some  recognized 
landscape  architect.  Not  unlike  Americans  of  all  classes,  they  spend  a  little 
more  on  their  house  and  its  furnishings  than  they  had  originally  planned,  and  as  the 
whole  business  approaches  completion  it  becomes  necessary  to  lessen  expenses  in 
every  possible  way.  They  want  all  the  attractive  features  proposed  by  the 
landscape  architect;  but  as  the  work  progresses,  due  either  to  under-estimating 
on  the  part  of  the  landscape  architect  or  to  their  own  over-estimating  of  their 
resources,  curtailment  of  the  work  becomes  necessary.  In  the  eyes  of  the  archi- 
tect, his  work,  thus  terminated,  is  unsuccessful. 

In  other  instances  of  small  residences  done  by  landscape  architects,  the  cost  of 
maintaining  them,  after  all  is  finished,  has  proved  to  be  too  great  a  financial 
burden.  If  landscape  work  is  neglected  for  want  of  means  or  for  want  of  skilled 
gardeners,  especially  while  such  work  is  new  and  immature,  it  is  natural  for  the 
landscape  architect  to  be  disappointed;  and  surely  such  examples  of  his  work  do 
him  no  credit.  It  is  safe  to  say,  furthermore,  that  most  landscape  architects 
have  found  that  it  is  more  difficult  to  procure  good  gardeners  for  small  places 
than  for  large  ones. 

In  other  cases  in  which  the  landscape  architect  has  been  engaged  for  such  small 
jobs,  there  have  arisen  difficulties  over  professional  charges,  which,  to  the  small- 
home  owner,  seem  unreasonably  large,  especially  when,  toward  the  end  of  things, 
circumstances  become  somewhat  colored  by  his  worry  over  his  bills.  Yet  the 
landscape  architect  may  not  have  charged  so  much  for  these  small  plans  as  for 
larger  ones ,  although  his  visits  took  just  as  much  time  as  did  those  for  his  larger 
jobs,  and  although  most  likely  he  had  already  made  considerate  reductions  from 
hi?  customary  charges.  In  the  past  he  had  met  with  clients  of  ample  means  who 
did  not  appreciate  his  work,  and  with  others  who  required  a  great  deal  of  redraw- 
ing of  their  plans.  Even  some  of  his  larger  and  most  successful  jobs  had  deteriorat- 
ed for  want  of  good  gardening.  But  in  the  case  of  these  large  jobs  he  had  at  least 
been  well  paid  for  his  services.  Thur  it  has  come  about  that,  all  things  considered, 
the  landscape  architect  is  likely  to  regard  the  little  job  as  only  "much  ado  about 
nothing." 

There  are  examples  of  small  homes  well  done,  but  they  are  few  and  far  between. 
Unfortunately,  not  homes  of  the  same  size  and  cost,  but  rather  the  larger  and  more 
elaborate  residences  are  selected  as  models  for  the  smaller  ones.  And  if  these 
larger  "landscaped"  homes  are  flashy  with  yellow-,  blue-,  and  purple-foliage  plants 
and  resplendent  with  evergreens,  it  is  these  which  are  more  likely  to  be  used  as 
models  for  some  poor  little  front  yard,  resulting  in  a  very  much  overdressed  effect. 
Small  homes  are  new  problems  to  most  landscape  architects;  likewise,  the  land- 
scape architect  is  still  somewhat  of  a  stranger  to  the  suburbanite  and  the  com- 
muter. 

After  all,  how  many  persons  understand  the  advantages  of  good  landscape 
planning?  It  is  much  to  be  feared  that,  to  the  average  home  builder,  "landscap- 
ing" is  but  a  part  of  the  beautifying  of  his  home;  hence  to  him  it  is  still  but  a 
luxury.  But  nothing  is  too  good  for  him,  and  the  only  questions  are  "how  much 


will  it  cost?"  and,  "how  far  can  I  afford  to  go  with  it?"  This  attitude,  as  well  as 
the  misunderstanding  which  causes  it,  is  probably  general.  Does  the  average 
person  have  any  idea  that  these  developments,  this  landscape  planning,  may 
have  any  practical  bearing  upon  the  usefulness,  the  convenience,  or  the  value  of 
his  completed  home?  It  should  be  understood  that  grounds  of  limited  extent  may 
be  planned  to  be  useful  as  well  as  pleasing  in  appearance.  Also,  is  it  not  quite 
possible  that  some  plans  are  better  than  others?  The  achievement  of  both  use- 
fulness and  beauty  through  careful  planning  is  not  supposed,  by  the  average  un- 
derstanding, to  lie  within  the  scope  of  landscape  work. 

The  work  of  the  landscape  gardener  or  of  the  florist  has  been  concerned  with 
appearances,  the  covering  up  of  ugly  things,  the  pretty  arrangement  of  plants, 
the  making  of  smooth  lawns,  and  the  like.  It  is  not  generally  understood  that 
good  planning  looks  primarily  to  the  economical  use  of  space,  and  to  the  reason- 
able arrangement  of  parts  and  objects  which  are  related.  A  well-planned  house 
may  have  individual  rooms  of  the  same  size  as  those  of  a  poorly  planned  one; 
and  furthermore,  the  first  house  may  contain  less  total  floor  space  or  less  cubage 
than  the  other  and  thus  cost  less  because  it  is  more  compact.  The  well-planned 
one  would  also  be  more  convenient  and  better  in  appearance.  And  all  this  re- 
sults from  careful  planning.  The  same  principle  applied  to  small  yards  will  be 
equally  effective,  and  the  need  becomes  greater  as  the  yards  become  smaller. 
But  more  of  this  later.  That  planning  is  both  useful  and  beautifying  which  the 
landscape  architect  aims  to  accomplish. 

It  might  be  well,  at  this  time,  to  explain  from  whence  came  the  name  "land- 
scape gardener."  Landscape  architecture  has  a  history,  and  thereof  this  explan- 
ation is  a  part. 

The  term  "landscape  gardener"  was  first  used  about  1785  by  one  Sir  Humphrey 
Repton,  an  Englishman,  who  determined  to  become  an  advisor  to  those  wishing 
to  layout  or  to  improve  their  country  estates.  According  to  his  explanation,  the 
word  "landscape"  was  used  to  distinguish  his  profession  from  that  of  a  gardener, 
and  also  it  referred  to  the  kind  of  scenery  to  be  made,  namely,  the  reproduction 
of  the  pictures  of  landscape  painters,  for  the  painting  of  rural  scenes  was  just  then 
coming  into  vogue  and  arousing  great  popular  interest.  The  fad  which  resulted 
was  that  of  having  picturesque  and  rural  scenery  about  houses,  instead  of  the 
formal  gardens  of  old.  Several  gardeners  had  leaped  into  fame  for  their  sup- 
posed ability  to  make  imitation  rivers  and  picturesque,  rural  scenery,  where  be- 
fore there  had  been  such  stately  settings  for  great  buildings  as  imposing  court- 
yards, terraces,  and  fine  gardens.  Repton  wanted  to  do  better  in  the  making  of 
such  scenery.  He  stated  his  intention  to  be  that  of  reproducing  the  pictures  of 
landscape  painters  in  real  scenery,  or,  at  least,  of  applying  their  ideals  to  the 
composition  of  scenery  about  the  great  houses  of  the  English  country  estates.. 
Furthermore,  in  coining  the  title  "landscape  gardener,"  he  wished  to  do  two  things 
— namely,  to  distinguish  himself  from,  and  to  set  himself  above,  the  gardener, 
and  to  express  some  connection  with  artists,  whereby  he  would  commit  himself, 
in  his  work,  to  the  studv  of  their  landscape  pictures  and  the  principles  that  govern- 
ed their  compositions.  This  was  his  explanation  of  the  term  as  he  used  it,  and 
under  this  title  he  practiced  his  profession. 

Repton  was  a  man  of  good  education  and  of  some  means.  His  father  was  a 
merchant,  and  this  vocation  the  son  likewise  was  expected  to  follow.  He  lived  on 


the  small  rural  estate  left  him  by  his  father,  and  perhaps  it  was  while  living  there 
that  he  developed  his  interest  in  rural  scenery.  However,  mercantile  business 
failing,  to  quote  from  a  biographical  note: 

The  possibility  of  turning  to  advantage  that  natural  taste  for  improving  the  beauties  of  scenery, 
which  had  formed  one  of  the  dearest  pleasures  of  his  rural  life,  suggested  itself  to  his  mind  one  night 
when  anxiety  had  driven  sleep  from  his  pillow.  The  scheme  which  at  first  seems  to  have  entered 
his  mind  with  almost  the  vague  uncertainty  of  a  dream,  assumed  a  more  substantial  form,  when, 
with  the  return  of  day,  he  meditated  upon  its  practicability.  With  his  usual  quickness  of  decision . . 
he  spent  the  whole  of  that  day  in  writing  to  his  various  acquaintances.  .  .  .explaining  his  intention  of 
becoming  a  "landscape  gardener,"  and  he  lost  not  a  moment  in  bending  his  whole  mind  to  the 
acquisition  of  such  technical  knowledge  as  he  thought  necessary  for  ths  practical  purposes  of  such 
a  profession. 

Previous  to  the  time  of  Repton,  in  fact  for  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century  before 
his  birth,  there  had  existed  in  England  an  almost  universal  predilection  for 
naturalistic  scenery  in  the  place  of  formal  gardens;  and  in  many  cases,  gardens 
hundreds  of  years  old,  surrounding  equally  old  houses,  had  been  destroved  to 
make  way  for  this  picturesque  scenery.  Today  it  is  recognized  that  this  was  a 
mistake  and  a  misfortune,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  some  of  the  estates  thus  "im- 
proved" did  not  even  date  back  to  the  time  of  King  Charles  Il(i668),  and  were  not 
nearly  so  good  as  those  of  the  Tudor  times  (1500-1600).  Advocates  of  this  "new 
style,"  however,  were  not  discriminating:  all  that  was  condemmed  as  "formal" 
was  swept  away  to  be  replaced  by  the  picturesque — a  style  of  equal  artificiality 
had  they  but  stopped  to  realize  it. 

Repton  took  the  stand  that,  adjoining  the  houses,  some  conventionality  was 
desirable,  and  that  not  all  should  be '  'landscaped. ' '  For  that  day  and  time,  this  was 
a  wholly  commendable  stand  for  a  man  in  his  position  to  assume;  but  apparently 
he  did  not  live  up  to  it.  Yet  remembering  that  he  was  trained  to  be  a  merchant 
rather  than  a  designer,  it  is  not  surprising  that  he  was  somewhat  influenced  by  the 
taste,  or  want  of  taste,  of  his  day.  He  was  in  fact,  an  able  man,  whereas  the  other 
advocates  of  the  natural  style,  who  had  preceded  him,  were  mostly  mere  adven- 
turers and  opportunists  taking  advantage  of  a  passing  fad.  And  for  a  certainty, 
Repton  took  his  title  most  seriously.  The  following  is  a  quotation  from  his 
answer  to  a  letter  in  which  he  was  criticized  for  assuming  so  ambitious  a  title: 

But,  while  you  are  pleased  to  allow  me  some  of  the  qualities  necessary  to  my  profession,  you  sup- 
pose me  deficient  in  others,  and  therefore  strongly  recommend  the  study  of  "what  the  higher  artists 
have  done,  both  in  theii  pictures  and  drawings"  a  branch  of  knowledge  which  I  have  always  consider- 
ed to  be  not  less  essential  to  my  profession  than  hydraulics  or  surveying,  and  without  which  I 
should  never  have  presumed  to  arrogate  to  myself  the  title  of  "landscape  gardener,"  which,  you 
observe,  is  "a  title  of  no  mean  pretention." 

While  Repton  was  not  so  wholly  absorbed  in  the  ideals  of  the  picturesque  as 
were  most  of  his  predecessors  and  contemporaries,  most  of  his  work,  nevertheless, 
dealt  almost  exclusively  with  the  picturesque  landscape  of  English  private  parks, 
or,  as  we  would  call  them,  pastures.  This  type  of  artificial  scenery  may  be  seen 
today  in  our  large  city  parks,  in  our  golf  links,  and  in  the  meadows  of  our  large 
country  estates;  and  it  is  appropriately  called  "parklike."  It  is  also  known  as 
"landscape"  scenery,  deriving  this  name  from  the  same  origin  as  does  the  term 
"landscape  gardening." 

Landscape  gardening  continued  to  prevail  as  the  designation  both  of  this  partic- 
ular style  and  of  the  profession,  until  Mr.  Frederick  Law  Olmsted  (who  died  in 


10 

Boston  in  1890)  assumed  the  title  "landscape  architect."  It  should  be  under- 
stood that,  both  in  its  inception  and  in  its  application,  the  term  "landscape  garden- 
ing" referred  primarily  to  planting  and  grading  operations,  and  also  that  it  implied 
the  use  of  but  one  style  for  all  situations — namely,  the  parklike.  Thus  it  would 
seem  that  persons  still  adhering  to  this  title  should,  to  be  consistent,  practice 
Mr.  Repton's  theories — theories  very  good  in  some  ways  but  very  limited  and,  in 
some  respects,  unquestionably  wrong.  Today  the  work  of  the  landscape  archi- 
tect includes  the  planning  of  parks,  of  subdivisions,  of  park  systems,  and,  occa- 
sionally, even  of  entire  cities.  Furthermore,  the  planning  of  residences  may  in- 
volve architectural  settings  appropriate  for  city  homes,  as  well  as  those  suitable 
for  both  simple  and  architecturally  elaborate  country  estates.  In  such  a  variety 
of  work,  in  order  to  suit  all  situations  it  is  necessary  to  deal  in  both  formal  gardens 
and  parklike  scenery.  Further,  in  planning  and  in  executing  designs  for  park 
systems,  parks,  gardens,  and  the  like,  one  finds  himself  confronted  by  problems  of 
engineering,  economics,  agriculture,  building  construction,  and,  last  and  most 
important,  design. 

Hence  it  would  seem  that  the  expression  "landscape  gardening,"  as  a  general 
name  for  the  profession  or  its  work,  is  entitled  to  no  status  today,  and,  in  fact, 
most  persons  so  styling  themselves  are  but  gardeners  and  florists.  With  these 
distinctions  made  clear,  perhaps  a  definite  statement  of  the  aims  and  scope  of  the 
profession  will  now  be  more  readily  undsrstood. 

Landscape  architecture  aims,  first,  to  produce  an  economic  arrangement  of  the 
objects  and  parts  of  a  property,  or  unit  of  land;  and,  second,  to  attain  beauty  in 
the  kind  of  scenery  that  is  suitable  to  any  particular  property.  These  aims  are 
developed,  not  in  sequence,  but  simultaneously  in  the  design.  For  the  amateur  it 
may  be  best  to  think  of  planning  in  this  way  —  as  a  dual  function. 

Then  it  is  the  aim  of  the  landscape  architect  to  plan  both  for  convenience  and 
for  attractiveness  of  setting.  For  a  certainty,  a  convenient  and  compact  ar- 
rangement is  also  the  most  easily  decorated.  In  fact  it  is  surprising  how  well  a 
group  of  buildings  look  which  have  been  given  an  orderly  disposition;  or  how  well 
a  new  residence  appears  when  the  house  is  suitably  placed,  the  walks  and  roads 
are  laid  to  a  good  line,  and  the  ground  is  well-graded;  and  this  is  noticeable  even 
before  any  planting  has  been  done  or  any  mature  or  settled  condition  has  been 
attained.  The  orderly  arrangement,  though  bare  of  decoration,  is  attractive  in 
tself. 

But  some  persons  will  attempt  the  improvement  of  a  residence  without  any 
previous  thought  for  the  plan  as  a  whole.  They  imagine  that  merely  by  plant- 
ing trees  and  shrubs,  or  by  laying  out  flower  beds,  or  by  making  a  garden,  this  is 
possible.  In  such  cases  the  result  proves  not  very  successful,  and  usually  more 
planting  is  resorted  to,  with  the  mistaken  idea  that  success  in  the  result  depends 
only  on  the  amount  of  material  planted  and  on  its  cost.  A  disorderly  plan  is 
bad  enough;  but  an  excess  of  planting  further  clutters  a  yard  and  adds  to  the 
appearance  of  confusion.  The  importance  of  starting  with  a  good  plan  would  be 
appreciated  by  such  persons  if  they  could  but  see  how  well  even  a  half-finished 
example  of  landscape  work  looks,  even  while  there  is  evident  only  the  skeleton 
of  its  ultimate  arrangement.  The  effect  is  pleasing  at  this  stage  of  its  progress 
because  it  is  apparently  orderly  and  compact,  and  because  each  part  is  coordinat- 
ed with  other  related  parts.  It  looks  useful  and  yet  has  style  also.  An  awkward 


II 

plan  may  at  times  be  improved  by  decoration,  if  its  defects  are  thereby  some- 
what hidden ;  but  this  solution  does  not  make  it  more  convenient,  and  the  result 
•is  seldom  interesting  in  appearance.  Careful  planning  is  not  only  necessary  for 
convenience,  but  its  contribution  is  essential  to  the  achievement  of  the  beauty 
desired. 

In  a  collection  of  articles  on  the  early  history  of  landscape  architecture,  written 
some  twenty-five  years,  ago  appeared  the  following  definition ;  and  though  these 
articles  dealt  largely  with  the  extensive  parks  and  gardens  surrounding  royal 
palaces,  the  fundamental  principles  expressed  therein  are  sound: 

The  art  of  gardening  means  the  art  of  arranging  surfaces  of  land  and  water,  with  all  the  forms  of 
vegetation  they  support  and  all  such  works  of  architecture  or  sculpture  as  may  be  thought  desirable , 
according  to  some  settled  design  or  scheme.  Its  productions  may  vary  in  character  between  the 
most  formal  and  the  most  natural  looking  effects;  and  in  size  between  the  smallest  bit  of  verdurous 
ground  in  a  city  street  and  the  widest  rural  park.  But  they  may  always  be  distinguished  by  the 
fact  that  organized  beauty  has  been  sought  in  their  creation.  Horticulture  aims  at  the  development 
of  beautiful  individual  plants.  Economic  gardening,  like  the  sister  craft  of  agriculture,  so  dis- 
poses of  the  surface  of  the  ground  and  the  individual  plants  that  cultivation  can  most  easily  be 
pursued;  but  when  we  speak  of  the  ait  of  gardening,  we  imply  a  result  in  which,  though  individual 
plants  are  valued  and  usefulness  is  largely  served,  a  beautiful  general  effect  has  been  the  main 
concern. — Mrs.  Schuyler  Van  Renssalaer . 

While  the  point  of  view  of  twenty-five  years  ago  is  somewhat  different  from  that 
of  today,  nevertheless  this  interesting  definition  presents  the  subject  very  clearly, 
and  is  wanting  only  in  those  very  practical  aspects  which  confront  landscape  archi- 
tecture today  in  our  very  practical  age. 

The  following  quotation  from  the  diary  of  Charles  Eliot,  written  about  the 
same  time  as  Mrs.  Van  Renssalaer's  article,  defines  landscape  architecture  as, 
"the  art  of  arranging  land  and  landscape  for  human  use,  convenience,  and  enjoy- 
ment." In  a  letter  written  in  1890  he  says  further:  "The  scope  and  breadth  of 
my  profession  is  not  often  recognized.  As  I  understand  it,  all  conscious  arranging 
of  visible  things  for  man's  convenience,  and  for  man's  delight,  is  architecture." 
Then  he  quotes  from  Morris:  "A  great  subject,  truly,  for  it  embraces  the  consider- 
ation of  the  whole  of  the  external  surroundings  of  the  life  of  man:  we  cannot  es- 
cape from  it  if  we  would,  for  it  means  the  moulding  and  the  altering  to  human  need 
the  very  face  of  the  earth  itself."  Further  on  in  his  letter,  Mr.  Eliot  continues: 

This  building  of  convenient  and  beautiful  structures  is  thus  but  a  part  of  architecture.  The 
arranging  of  these  structures  in  streets,  in  neighborhoods,  on  seacoasts,  in  the  valleys  of  the  hills, 
the  careful  adjustment  of  the  structure  to  its  site  and  its  landscape,  the  devising  of  ways  and  roads 
so  that  they  may  either  be  impressive  through  order  and  formality,  charming  through  their  subordi- 
nation to  natural  conditions,  the  development  of  appropriate  beauty  in  the  surroundings  of  build- 
ings, whether  by  adding  terraces  and  avenues  or  by  enhancing  natural  beauty — all  this  is.  or  ought 
to  be  at  least,  one-half  of  the  art  and  profession  of  architecture.  This  is  the  landscape  architect's 
part;  for  the  field  is  so  wide  that  it  can  hardly  be  comprehended  by  one  man,  and  two  professions 
are  necessary,  each  approaching  and  helping  the  other. 

In  another  letter,  written  in  1896,  to  one  whose  article  on  the  function  of  the 
landscape  artisi  had  confused  landscape  architecture  with  landscape  gardening, 
Mr.  Eliot  wrote: 

Landscape  architecture  includes  and  covers  landscape  engineering,  landscape  gardening,  and 
landscape  forestry.  A  formal  avenue  or  parkway  is  a  work  of  landscape  architecture;  so  is  a  well- 
designed  picturesque  park.  The  engineer  and  the  gardener  will  each  have  his  share  in  both  pieces 

of  work ;  but  each  must  labor  for  the  perfecting  of  the  general  design if  a  successful  result  is 

to  be  achieved. 


12 

There  remains  considerable  evidence  of  good  planning  in  the  gardens  of  the 
ancients,  although  in  many  cases  their  works  seemingly  were  intended  only  to 
embellish  the  surroundings  of  buildings.  If  we  may  judge  from  what  little  we  know 
of  them,  the  works  of  the  Romans  showed  more  eviden  e  of  planning  than  was 
apparent  in  the  work  of  the  earlier  peoples ;  and  this  planning  seemingly  compre- 
hended entire  properties  with  all  the  structures  and  areas  included  therein. 
On  the  whole,  aesthetic  considerations  seem  to  have  prevailed.  Landscape 
planning  in  Europe  during  the  Renaissance  varied  considerably  in  the  different 
countries,  but  the  most  typical  examples  invariably  show  practical  considerations 
subordinated  to  artistic  effects.  Modern  landscape  architecture  has  recognized 
the  value  of  efficiency  in  planning.  It  seeks  economy  in  the  use  of  space  and 
topography,  and  convenience  in  the  arrangement  of  related  parts,  as  well  as  en- 
deavoring always  to  obtain  the  most  pleasing  general  effect. 

Too  much  stress  cannot  be  laid  upon  the  importance  of  careful  planning.  When 
large  properties  are  involved,  such  as  country  estates  or  farms,  or  such  public 
grounds  as  parks,  playgrounds,  or  groups  of  buildings,  the  value  of  good  profession- 
al advice  is  more  readily  admitted,  since  the  expenditure  must  necessarily  be 
relatively  great,  and  the  cost  of  the  mistakes  which  may  thereby  be  obviated  will 
offset  the  professional  fee.  In  the  development  of  small  residences,  or  in  the 
planning  of  groups  of  buildings  with  but  little  open  ground  about  them,  the  need 
for  careful  planning  is  not  at  first  so  apparent,  because  the  amount  of  ground  is 
small.  The  need  of  a  landscape  architect's  advice  is  by  some  persons  thought 
to  vary  directly  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  land,  or  area,  left  after  the  build- 
ings have  been  erected.  One  should  recognize,  however,  that  just  the  reverse 
is  true.  The  possibilities  may  not  be  so  great  where  the  land  areas  are  small; 
but,  the  requirements  remaining  constant,  the  problem  of  its  arrangement  and 
convenience  becomes  more  perplexing  and  difficult  as  the  size  of  the  grounds  de- 
creases. Especially  in  restricted  situations  should  the  buildings  and  grounds 
be  simultaneously  planned,  and  that  by  one  familiar  with  the  particular  needs, 
both  within  the  buildings  and  without,  of  the  future  occupant.  Economy  in  the 
use  of  the  small  space  available  is  absolutely  essential,  and  convenience  is  still 
required.  The  alleviation  of  all  appearance  of  cramped  conditions  and  the 
beauty  of  the  whole,  which  must  still  be  attained  in  spite  of  difficulties — these  are 
problems  for  the  landscape  architect. 

One  has  only  to  recall  the  almost  universal  disorderliness  and  unattractiveness 
of  the  settings  of  our  public  buildings,  and  also  the  shabby  yards  of  most  city 
homes,  to  realize  both  the  neglect  of,  and,  at  the  same  time,  the  importance  of 
the  landscape  problems  involved  in  the  planning  of  limited  areas.  To  be  well- 
planned  is  their  greatest  need;  to  so  locate  buildings  as  to  permit  reasonable 
disposition  of  the  land;  to  plan  walks  and  roads  for  convenience,  grace  of  line, 
and  the  conservation  of  unbroken  lawns;  and  to  recognize  where  to  use  every  foot 
of  land  sparingly  and  where  to  be  generous  with  it — these  are  only  a  few  of  the 
questions  which  bear  on  the  reasonable  arrangement  of  properties. 

Summarizing,  then,  landscape  architecture  is  an  art  of  design;  and  the  princi- 
ples of  such  design,  intelligently  applied,  should  lend  valuable  aid  in  the  solution  of 
problems  of  planning  land  areas,  together  with  all  the  features  they  may  include. 
Our  home  surroundings  and  city  environments  are  no  exception  to  the  rule  that 
beauty  is  generally  wholesome  and  therefore  necessary  for  our  welfare  and 


13 

happiness.  This  is  exemplified  in  the  general  and  growing  desire  for  attractive 
home  grounds.  Practical  planning,  though  necessarily  the  first  consideration, 
may  not  be  considered  apart  from  the  attainment  of  beauty,  both  being  included 
in  the  purpose  of  landscape  architecture  and  both  being  developed  simultaneously 
in  a  design.  A  generally  inte1ligent  point  of  view  of  the  subject  on  the  part  of 
everyone,  both  in  home  and  in  civic  life,  does  for  a  certainty,  seem  desirable. 

The  first  steps  in  the  development  of  any  property  should  look  to  its  plan, 
and  that  plan  should  deal  with  the  property  in  its  entirety.  Whether  or  not  a 
yard  is  to  be  left  largely  in  grass,  the  house  and  yard  should  be  regarded  as  one, 
and  planned  as  one.  Either  a  lot  should  be  selected  suitable  to  a  preconceived 
house,  or  a  house  should  be  designed  to  suit  a  particular  lot,  and  of  the  two,  the 
latter  course  is  best. 

A  house  should  not  be  planned  in  the  abstract  and  then  buili  on  any  lot  large 
enough  to  contain  it,  with  perhaps  more  or  less  turf  about  it,  much  as  a  horse  is 
pastured  in  any  lot  large  enough  to  furnish  him  sufficient  pasturage.  Unfortunate- 
ly, the  attitude  too  frequently  encountered  is,  "If  the  lot  is  too  small  or  ill- 
suited,  well,  that  is  too  bad,  but  it  could  not  be  helped!"  There  are  no  rules  for 
proportions  between  the  sizevS  of  houses  and  of  the  lots  on  which  they  are  built. 
Almost  any  proportion  may  be  made  practical  and  of  attractive  appearance  if 
the  whole  is  carefully  planned  out  at  the  start,  so  that  the  result  achieved  will 
make  those  proportions  seem  to  have  been  intentional. 

Properties  with  fmall  yards  most  of  all  require  careful  planning,  just  as  do 
small  houses,  for  there  is  no  room  to  waste.  In  any  home  there  are  certain  es- 
sential features,  such  as  the  main  rooms  of  a  house.  Outside,  likewice,  there  are 
similar  necessary  things  which  must  be  provided,  as,  rich  or  poor,  we  must  live 
similarly  in  the  main  essentials,  and  differently  only  in  our  comforts  and  luxuries. 
In  small  yards  these  essentials  must  be  provided  for,  and  it  is  much  to  be  desired 
that  some  comforts  may  also  be  included.  But  is  it  evident  that  the  amplitude 
suitable  for  the  indoor  rooms  and  for  the  outdoor  lawns  and  gardens  of  large 
homes  is  entirely  incompatible  with  small  properties.  It  is  likewise  evident 
for  small  residences  that  a  variety  of  outdoor  features  similar  to  those  seen  on 
large  estates  is  neither  possible  nor  appropriate.  The  scale  of  the  human  being 
must  limit  all  dimensions.  For  example,  a  door  may  be  too  small  to  get  through, 
and  a  walk  may  be  too  narrow  to  be  practical.  When  the  dimensions  of  features 
in  small  yards  are  diminutive,  the  plan  is  impractical  and  the  effect  is  merely 
petty.  A  diversity  of  features  must  also  be  avoided  in  small  yards.  They 
should  be  left  as  open  as  possible,  with  but  few,  and  those  only  the  necessary, 
subdivisions. 

A  discussion  of  the  principles  governing  the  planning  of  small  residence  prop- 
erties must  of  necessity  be  subject  to  a  considerable  number  of  limitations. 
Especially  must  this  be  the  case  if  these  explanations  are  intended  for  the  amateur. 
It  is  hardly  necessary  to  say  that  planning  may  be  done  best  only  by  one  with  true 
feeling  for  design.  In  any  art,  composition  cannot  be  carried  out  by  rule.  Never- 
theless, the  writer  is  convinced  that  some  fundamentals  of  good  planning  may  be 
plainly  expressed  in  words.  In  the  last  analysis,  many  principles  in  design  are 
dependent  upon  the  needs  and  limitations  of  human  beings,  upon  their  customs 
and  their  circumstances  of  environment.  All  design  has  emanated  from  us — 
from  our  point  of  view  as  human  beings;  it  is  indeed  of  us  and  for  us.  It  is  the 


14 

equation  of  the  human  being  plus  his  environment.  We  vary  according  to  our 
hereditary  and  in  our  individual  inclinations;  and  our  environment  furthermore 
varies  our  opportunities.  But  there  is  much  common  ground,  and  much  that  is 
tangible  and  definable.  It  is  hoped  that  at  least  in  these  physical  and  tangible 
aspects,  design  may  be  somewhat  explained  and  defined. 

For  the  sake  of  convenience  in  discussion,  some  classification  of  the  various 
kinds  of  estates,  according  to  their  size  and  situation,  will  be  arbitrarily  made. 
Although  one  should  realize  that  almost  every  property  is  in  a  class  by  itself  and 
is  therefore  also  a  law  unto  itself,  there  is  sufficient  similarity  in  most  of  the 
narrow  city  lots,  for  example,  to  permit  of  their  being  regarded  and  discussed  as  a 
group.  Another  group  would  include  those  of  wider  frontage.  A  classification 
will  therefore  be  made,  as  follows:  first,  narrow  city  lots  with  houses  of  like 
widths,  solid  blocks,  semi-detached  houses  (double  houses),  and  detached 
houses  with  some  side-yard  space  but  insufficient  for  a  side-yard  court  or  garden; 
second,  average  suburban  lots  with  frontage  two  or  three  times  that  of  the  house 
front  and  therefore  sufficient  for  some  side-yard  feature;  third,  country  cottages, 
whose  lots  are  apt  to  have  a  frontage  greater  than  their  depth;  fourth,  some 
type  of  farmstead. 

A  comparatively  level  area  of  ground  will  be  assumed  in  order  that  the  problem 
may  be  simple  and  the  explanation  not  unnecessarily  complicated.  Fundamental 
principles  of  the  arrangement  clearly  suitable  for  flat  ground  will,  in  a  later 
chapter,  be  discussed  in  their  relation  to  more  varied  topography.  If,  from  the 
simple  examples  used  at  the  beginning  of  this  study,  the  underlying  principles 
may  be  clearly  understood,  it  may  later  be  possible  to  adapt  them  and  to  vary 
them  intelligently  in  the  modelling  of  rough  or  irregular  land. 


CHAPTER  II 

ARRANGEMENT  OP  NARROW  LOTS 

All  lots  should  be  planned  carefully  from  boundary  to  boundary,  whether  they 
are  to  be  but  small  front  and  rear  areas,  or  narrow  strips  of  land  at  the  sides,  or 
more  spacious  yards.  Small  yards  are  usually  the  result  of  high  land  values,  and 
if  one  has  paid  dearly  for  narrow  frontage,  only  by  careful  planning  can  he  hope 
for  value  returned.  If  the  land  was  not  to  be  used,  why  then  was  it  purchased? 
Rear  areas  are  apt  to  become  catch-alls  for  rubbish  unless  they  are  adapted  to 
useful  purposes.  Use,  however,  is  likely  to  invite  care  and  neatness,  and  neatness 
alone  is  often  a  satisfactory  solution  for  the  small-back-yard  problem. 

One  has  to  pay,  for  every  foot  of  frontage,  on  many  streets,  as  much  as  fifty 
dollars  a  front  foot.  Though  the  depth  of  the  lot  has  some  bearing  on  the  rate, 
the  principal  factor  is  the  importance  of  the  street,  and  one  pays  primarily  for 
frontage.  Since  one  has  to  pay  dearly  for  every  foot,  why  not  so  plan  the  land  as 
to  derive  from  it  the  greatest  possible  use  and  enjoyment?  In  planning  a  house, 
one  tries  to  arrange  for  the  desired  dimensions  in  this  and  in  that  room,  but  also 
observes  great  care  in  joining  these  rooms  so  that  there  may  be  no  waste  space  in 
halls,  angular  areas,  and  irregularities  which  do  not  affect  the  apparent  size  of  the 
house  or  its  rooms  but  do  add  to  the  total  cost.  We  should  plan  small  yards  to 
be  compact  and  economical  in  the  same  way. 

In  cramped  quarters  good  order  is  especially  necessary.  One  may  not  think 
his  yard  is  in  disorder,  but  it  is  quite  likely  that  careful  study  of  the  arrangement 
will  disclose  possibilities  of  greater  convenience  and  more  spaciousness.  In  the 
case  of  a  new  property  where  the  house  is  yet  to  be  planned  and  built,  the  first- 
floor  rooms,  the  entrances — in  fact,  any  general  aspects  or  details  of  the  house 
plan  which  might  better  relate  it  to  its  lot — should  be  taken  into  account.  The 
position  of  the  house,  as  well  as  its  outside  dimensions,  determines  the  size  of  the 
front  and  rear  areas.  If  the  house  does  not  extend  across  the  entire  width  of  the 
lot,  the  use  of  the  narrow  strips  at  the  sides  should  be  determined  and  the  space 
arranged  accordingly.  Frequently  houses  are  found  on  one  side  of  which  is  an 
area  of  no  particular  use,  while  on  the  opposite  side  a  foot  or  two  more  would  have 
made  possible  a  much-neeo'ed  walk  or  driveway.  If  lots  are  not  very  deep,  SQ 
that  both  front  and  rear  yards  must  of  necessity  be  shallow,  it  may  be  better, 
rather  than  to  try  to  obtain  sufficient  space  between  the  houses  for  side  light, 
to  plan  them  broad  and  narrow  with  no  windows  in  the  ends  and  to  leave  only 
what  space  may  be  necessary  for  a  side  passage.  The  better  penetration  of  light  due 
to  the  small  f  ront-and-back  dimensions  may  result  in  the  interiors  of  such  houses 
being  better  lighted  than  those  of  houses  so  arranged  as  to  depend  for  some 
light  from  partially  darkened  side  windows.  Of  course,  an  architect  may  not 
have  opportunity  to  thus  mould  the  plan  of  the  house,  but  forethought  costs 
nothing,  and,  in  many  cases,  saves  much.  Thus  the  first  considerations  should 
include  a  careful  study  of  the  plan  of  the  house  in  relation  to  the  lot,  and  its 
position  thereon. 

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In  the  case  of  most  narrow  lots,  the  house  practically  cuts  the  lot  in  two,  divid- 
ing it  into  front  and  back  yards.  Where  the  building  line  is  not  fixed  by  restric- 
tions in  the  sale  contract,  one  is  free  to  place  his  house  as  near  or  as  far  back  from 
the  street  as  he  chooses.  The  depths  of  the  front  and  back  yards  will,  of  course, 
depend  upon  the  position  of  the  house.  What  considerations  determine,  or 
should  determine,  the  distance  of  the  house  front  from  the  street  line  and  the 
amount  of  space  necessary  in  the  back  yard? 

The  building  line  should  be  fixed  when  the  character  of  a  street  or  a  neighbor- 
hood is  determined;  but  in  the  past  this  decision  has  ordinarily  been  left  to  the 
discretion  of  those  who  built  the  first  houses.  This  haphazard  procedure  is 
especially  serious  if  the  houses  are  very  close  together  or  if  they  join.  However 
one  might  wish  to  place  his  house,  he  finds  himself  limited,  to  a  considerable  extent, 
by  this  established  building  line.  In  the  earlier  days  of  this  country,  it  was  the 
custom  to  place  houses  immediately  on  the  sidewalk  line,  thus  saving  all  the  land 
possible  for  a  garden  in  the  rear.  This  practice  was  followed  even  with  detached 
houses.  During  the  past  fifty  years,  the  garden  in  the  rear  has  given  way  to  the 
spacious  front  lawn  and  the  front  porch  affording  a  grandstand  seat  from  which 
to  observe  all  the  excitement  of  the  street.  The  latest  tendency,  however,  seems 
to  be  a  reversion  toward  the  old  idea  of  spacious  back  yards,  or  at  least  toward 
a  more  reasonable  adjustment  of  space,  and  toward  more  severe  house  fronts. 
One  cannot  vary  an  established  building  line  without  detriment  to  the  appearance 
of  the  block  and  possible  injury  to  his  neighbor's  house  as  well  as  his  own.  There- 
for it  is  unwise  to  buy  on  badly  planned  streets;  and  in  new  developments  the 
purchaser  should  insist  upon  proper  restrictions  for  the  street.  But  how  far 
back  should  this  building  line  be  located? 

The  attractive  appearance  of  one  or  of  all  house  fronts  on  any  street  must  depend 
upon  a  well-conceived  street  plan.  The  "front  scene"  is  not  that  of  a  single 
yard,  but  of  many,  and  includes  also  a  part  of  the  street  itself.  Therefore  the 
street,  in  its  width,  kind  of  pavement,  width  of  parkings,  and  disposal  and  kind  of 
trees,  should  be  considered  together  with  the  depths  of  the  lawns,  and  the  even 
size  and  harmonious  character  of  the  house  fronts.  All  this  should  be  combined  into 
one  study,  in  order  that  all  parts  and  elements  may  be  planned  in  good  proportion 
and  in  fitting  character.  Deep  lawns  will  not  improve  a  street  unless  possibly  the 
street  is  very  wide  and  the  adjoining  yards  and  houses  are  likewise  ample.  The 
unnecessarily  deep  lawn  only  makes  a  narrow  street  seem  narrower  by  comparison, 
and  will  also  dwarf  a  small  house  front  and  accentuate  the  narrowness  of  a  lot. 

What,  then,  is  the  determining  factor  in  the  question  of  the  amount  of  space 
needed  for  the  front  yard?  What  is  to  be  the  function  of  the  yard?  It  cannot  be 
that  of  a  garden,  as  there  is  no  privacy;  nor  can  it  be  given  over  to  any  specific 
use,  as  in  most  cases  front  yards  are  not  enclosed.  Its  purpose  is  merely  that 
of  an  entrance  feature  and  an  appropriate  foreground  for  the  house.  The  question 
then  becomes,  How  much  land  is  necessary  to  make  the  house  look  well? 

Usually  the  building  line  should  be  in  from  the  sidewalk  a  distance  of  from 
one-half  to  two-thirds  of  the  lot  widths.  If  there  is  any  suggestion  of  lot  bound- 
aries between  the  lawns,  such  a  building  line  makes  every  lot  appear  wider, 
as  the  widths  of  all  front  yards  will  be  their  greatest  dimension.  And  after  all, 
but  little  space  is  required  in  a  front  yard,  since  only  a  walk,  good  turf,  and 
few  very  trim  shrubs  or  evergreens  are  necessary.  There  is  little  opportunity 


i8 

for  ample  lawns  or  landscape  planting  where  the  frontage  is  but  thirty  or  forty 
feet.  Save  the  gardenlike  features  for  the  garden  in  the  rear. 

These  front-yard  grass  plots  look  best  with  the  simplest  treatments;  walks  to- 
one  side  rather  than  in  the  center  (except  for  houses  with  symmetrical  fronts  and 
center  doors)  and  always  straight;  good  grass;  and  very  little,  but  very  good, 
planting — in  brief,  simple,  straightforward  treatment  to  the  extent  of  severity 
makes  for  the  best  appearance  of  the  street  and  also  for  the  best  foreground  for 
a  house.  Shrubs  should  be  used  most  carefully,  and  selected  not  alone  for  their 
flowers  or  for  one's  fondness  for  particular  varieties,  but  for  their  fitness  in  the 
whole  picture  of  the  house  front.  Individual  shrubs  whose  form  or  appearance, 
all  the  year  around,  may  give  emphasis  to  the  entrance  or  soften  the  angles  of  the 
house  corner  or  porch  are  acceptable;  and  of  these  two  or  three,  or  possibly  more 
when  closely  grouped  so  as  to  have  the  effect  of  single  plants,  will  be  an  abundance. 
The  less  shrubbery  one  can  use  with  satisfactory  effect,  the  better  will  be  the 
result.  There  should  be  nothing  displeasing  in  the  appearance  of  the  masonry 
foundations  of  buildings;  and  in  fact  the  so-called  "foundation  planting"  or 
"base  planting,"  which  produces  the  absurd  effect  of  their  standing  upon  bushes, 
is  in  no  sense  desirable  and  only  detracts  from  their  appearance  of  stability. 
It  is  true  that  many  houses  have  been  built  too  high  above  the  ground,  and  con- 
cealment of  this  awkwardness  is  attempted  by  means  of  continuous  planting. 
But  one  evil  seldom  cures  another.  If  the  grade  line  is  too  low,  raise  it.  One 
should  rely  upon  vegetation  merely  to  soften,  to  give  the  appearance  of  a  little 
age,  and  to  add  a  touch  of  decoration.  Too  much  planting  clutters  a  small 
yard.  An  area  given  over  largely  to  planting  looks  like  a  garden,  and  the  place 
for  a  garden  is  not  in  the  small  front  yard  of  a  city  lot.  The  front  yard  as  a  whole 
should  be  planned  as  an  appropriate  foreground  for  the  house  front,  which  it 
should  set  off  without  attracting  the  main  interest;  to  itself.  Simple  treat- 
ments are  therefore  best. 

Houses  directly  on  the  sidewalk,  with  the  "stoop"  and  high  flight  of  steps 
which  afford  a  good  basement  entrance,  are  not  within  the  scope  of  this  discussion. 
With  any  appreciable  turf  area,  it  is  best  to  avoid  high  flights  of  steps  ascend- 
ing directly  to  the  front  door.  Steps  at  the  sidewalk,  or  several  flights  as  one 
approaches,  are  a  better  arrangement.  While  as  a  rule  low  doorsteps  and  at  least 
the  effect  of  a  low  first-floor  elevation  look  best,  yet,  unless  grades  are  compara- 
tively flat  in  these  small  front  lawns,  it  is  impossible  to  make  even  the  merest 
suggestion  of  a  rule  for  their  treatment.  When  a  house  is  planned,  that  line  of 
grade  across  the  front  should  be  determined  which  is  good  and  proper  in  relation 
to  the  design  of  its  front.  Then,  if  there  is  space  for  plants,  which  should  like- 
wise be  considered  when  the  front  is  being  designed,  these  will  not  have  to  serve 
as  curtains,  but  rather  will  they  be  a  part  of  the  design. 

Usually  the  most  important  plants  in  the  front  yard  are  those  on  either  side  of 
the  front  door.  At  times  these  are  all  that  will  be  needed.  Needless  to  say, 
they  should  be  carefully  selected  with  a  view  to  being  as  refined  as  possible  and  of 
a  kind  which  will  thrive  and  look  well  all  the  year  round.  Also  should  it  be 
remembered  that  these  plants  are  intended  as  a  decoration  for  the  front  door. 
Avoid  extremes  in  color  and  other  distracting  objects  and,  so  far  as  possible, 
choose  plants  of  dark,  rich,  green  foliage  and  rounded  forms,  rather  than  those 
of  conspicuous  or  striking  appearance.  In  city  situations,  gaudy  colors  and 


19 

variegated  effects  are  not  as  pleasing  as  somber  greens  and  occasional  white 
flowers.  The  flowers  of  course,  are  always  transient,  and  the  foliage  and  the 
winter  effect  are  therefore  of  prime  importance.  Unfortunately,  few  evergreens 
will  stand  street  dust  and  the  abuse  incident  to  exposed  situations,  whether  that 
of  persons  or  of  weather.  But,  evergeeen  or  deciduous,  front-yard  plants  should 
always  be  adapted  to  their  situation,  as  sickly  or  damaged  plants  are  by  no 
means  decorative. 

On  some  properties,  hedges  or  small  groups  of  shrubs  look  well  on  the  side 
boundary,  extending  from  the  building  line  part  way  to  the  sidewalk.  Preferably 
such  planting  in  front  yards  should  be  uniform  with  that  in  all  the  yards  on  the 
street.  Also  one  must  be  sure  to  maintain  such  planting  in  good  condition. 
Hedges  or  other  fences,  if  in  character,  and  if  in  accordance  with  the  custom  of 
the  street,  may  add  considerably  to  the  appearance  of  the  fronts.  In  old  cities 
and  villages,  "door-yards,"  as  they  were  called,  were  always  enclosed  by  walls, 
hedges,  or  fences.  Whatever  their  size,  the  yards  appeared  larger  when  some- 
what enclosed,  and  also,  being  enclosed,  they  could  be  used.  Any  enclosed  area 
seems  larger  because  it  is  not  then  merely  a  part  of  a  larger  expanse  by  com- 
parison with  which  it  appears  diminished.  In  illustration  of  this,  doubtless 
everyone  has  looked  into  the  cellar  of  some  new  house  and  commented  on  how 
small  that  house  would  be,  but  when  he  later  entered  the  house  as  it  approached 
completion,  was  surprised  to  find  it  much  larger  than  he  had  expected.  When 
the  cellar  was  just  a  hole  in  a  larger  lot,  it  appeared  small  by  comparison;  but 
when  one  had  gone  into  the  house  and  could  judge  its  size  only  by  his  recollection 
of  other  houses,  then  it  was  possible  to  form  a  fair  opinion  as  to  its  size.  It  is 
well  to  enclose  front  yards  in  situations  where  this  has  become  the  custom. 
However,  hedges  are  with  difficulty  maintained  if  too  near  a  sidewalk  or  if,  for 
any  reason,  they  receive  much  wear.  A  hedge  inside  an  inconspicuous  fence  usual- 
ly does  better.  But  walls  and  fences  with  attractive  gates,  if  well  done,  are 
always  both  practical  and  decorative. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  select  only  such  plants  as,  whatever  their  position  in  the 
front  yard,  may  easily  be  kept  within  the  desired  size  by  trimming,  or  such  as  do 
not  of  their  own  habit  grow  beyond  bounds.  It  is  by  no  means  uncommon  to 
see  shrubs  or  small  trees  spreading  over  a  large  part  of  a  front  yard  or  growing 
so  tall  as  to  cover  up  the  windows.  If  these  are  carelessly  cut  back,  they  become 
ragged.  If  flowering  shrubs  are  sheared,  they  look  equally  bad  without  most 
of  their  flowering  wood  and  with  but  a  weak  and  scattered  flower  crop.  Again,  it 
is  neither  good  gardening  nor  good  sense  to  make  pretty  little  groups  with  small 
evergreens,  which,  as  they  mature,  become  forest  trees.  Most  of  these  evergreens 
soon  grow  beyond  the  desired  size  and  become  sickly  when  restrained  with 
shears.  It  is  not  difficult  to  obtain  the  necesssary  information  about  plants 
before  they  are  selected. 

Vines  may  well  be  included  in  the  planting  scheme  for  a  house  front.  Their 
habits  vary,  however,  and  one  should  decide  whether  the  whole  front,  or  only  a 
part  of  it,  is  to  be  covered ;  whether  there  should  be  an  even  and  clinging  sheet 
of  foliage,  or  a  loosely  draped  curtain,  or  a  mass  of  vine  growth  for  a  roof  corner; 
in  brief,  one  must  know  exactly  what  particular  effect  that  can  be  produced  by 
vines  is  desirable.  Some  vines,  such  as  the  wistarias  climbing  up  a  house  corner, 
have  sufficient  foliage,  not  only  at  the  ground  but  all  the  way  up,  to  satisfactorily 


20 

dress  the  corner  and  thus  obviate  the  necessity  of  a  group  of  shrubs.  Some  vines 
will  climb  very  high;  but  all  have  very  definite  limits  in  this  respect.  Vines  for 
fronts,  like  other  plants,  should  be  selected  mainly  for  their  foliage.  Occasionally 
more  simple  and  unpretentious  houses  take  kindly  to  a  flowering  vine  over  the 
door. 

.Too  great  a  variety  of  vegetation  produces  a  spotty  rather  than  a  harmonious 
entire  effect.  In  planning  the  front  yard,  it  is  with  regard  to  the  whole  picture 
of  the  house  as  seen  from  the  street  that  one  should  be  concerned.  Don't  mistake 
the  front  yard  for  the  garden!  If  in  doubt  as  to  how  many  kinds  of  bushes  to 
use,  use  but  one  kind,  relying  upon  the  natural  variation  in  both  the  habit 
and  the  color  value  of  shrubs  of  the  same  species.  Dress  your  front  yard  on 
principles  of  simplicity. 

Thus,  considering  the  function  of  the  front  yard  to  be  mainly  that  of  furnishing 
a  proper  setting  for  the  house  front,  one  might  conclude  that  no  more  space  should 
be  allowed  than  will  suffice  for  a  shallow  lawn,  especially  in  view  of  the  fact  that 
a  deeper  lawn  may  make  the  narrow  lot  appear  even  narrower  than  it  is.  There 
should  be,  however,  some  recognition  of  the  building  line  and  other  prevailing 
customs  of  the  street.  On  the  same  street,  strikingly  different  schemes, though 
in  themselves  attractive  and  meritorious,  do  not  look  well.  After  all,  clever 
manipulation  of  simple  features  and  styles  requires  considerable  skill  on  the 
part  of  the  planner,  and  in  the  end  the  "landscaping"  of  small  front  yards  is 
more  a  matter  of  taste  and  judgment  than  of  expenditure  and  effort. 

Plans  for  back  yards  should  be  started  with  a  full  realization  of  the  fact  that  a 
limited  space  cannot  be  made  to  accomodate  features  appropriate  only  for  a 
larger  area.  A  city  back  yard  cannot  be  made  a  half -acre  suburban  garden  in 
miniature.  Starting  with  a  simple  plan,  the  next  care  should  be  to  have  all  de- 
tails serviceable  and  adapted  to  the  situation.  Walks  should  not  be  narrow  to 
the  extent  of  appearing  insignificant ;  where  grass  will  not  grow,  a  suitable  pave- 
ment is  better;  and  plants  that  do  not  thrive  should  be  omitted,  as  a  healthy 
weed  is  more  beautiful  than  a  sickly  flower.  The  situation  is  not  an  easy  one  with 
which  to  cope,  but,  nevertheless,  the  back-yard  garden  must  look  successful  in 
order  to  look  beautiful,  and  this  is  entirely  possible,  though  only  by  means  of  a 
common-sense  plan. 

The  improvement  of  the  back  yard  begins  with  the  fence.  Apparently  there 
has  never  been  any  question  of  the  need  of  fencing  back  yards.  The  American 
substitute  for  the  old-world  wall  was  a  step  backward.  Wooden  fences,  especially 
of  the  high,  tight-board  variety,  are  never  handsome,  now-a-days  not  even  cheap; 
they  are  usually  out  of  repair,  easily  climbable,  and,  in  the  long  run,  most  expen- 
sive. Where  a  solio  barrier  is  desirable,  a  light  masonry  wall  of  some  kind  proves, 
in  the  end,  the  most  economical,  and,  furthermore,  it  is  the  best  looking.  Vines 
growing  on  these  walls  need  never  be  disturbed.  It  is  easily  possible  to  perforate 
such  walls  to  permit  better  circulation  of  air.  The  wrought-iron  fence  is  always  a 
possibility  and  may  look  well  if  of  very  simple,  straightforward  design.  The 
fence  of  heavy  woven  wire  is  the  cheapest  substitute  for  a  permanent  and  sub- 
stantial fence.  This  must  be  very  carefully  hung  to  look  well,  and  of  a  small 
mesh  if  it  is  to  prevent  climbing.  But  with  a  heavy  growth  of  vines  upon  it, 
such  a  fence  becomes  practically  a  solid  barrier  though  still  permitting  a  free 
circulation  of  air,  and  this,  in  very  small  areas,  is  an  important  factor,  not  only 


21 

for  comfort  but  also  for  success  with  most  plants.  Height  in  any  barrier  is 
certainly  essential  for  some  degree  of  privacy  in  the  yard;  but  a  fence  may  be 
made  high  near  adjoining  houses  and  lower  elsewhere,  this  variation  in  line  being 
turned  to  a  decorative  purpose.  Additional  height  may  be  provided  in  certain 
places  by  means  of  tall  shrubs  and  trees  of  medium  size.  Arbors  may  parallel 
the  fences  and  open  into  the  lawn,  thus  increasing  the  privacy  of  the  outdoor 
walks  without  materially  affecting  the  lawn  space.  It  is  difficult  to  secure  abso- 
lute seclusion  where  adjoining  houses  are  near,  but  so  far  as  possible  it  is  essential, 
and  such  features  may,  in  addition,  contribute  to  the  decoration  of  the  yard. 

Whatever  general  arrangement  is  planned,  the  major  part  of  the  yard  should  be 
kept  clear  and  open,  and  this  open  space  should  adjoin  the  windows  or  doors, 
thus  serving  as  the  main  connection  with  the  interior  of  the  house.  Cramped 
quarters  require  an  effect  of  space  and  openness,  and  space  in  this  relation  to  the 
house  is  most  evident.  Covered  walks  may,  at  times,  be  provided  on  one  or  both 
sides,  and  these  may  afford  an  interesting  diversion  after  one  has  left  the  house. 
To  look  down  such  a  walk  from  a  minor  window  would,  of  course,  not  be  uninter- 
esting, but  as  a  rule  a  small  house  does  not  have  many  openings  into  a  yard,  and  a 
view  into  the  open  must  therefore  be  the  first  consideration.  Likewise,  for 
occasional  useful  purposes  and  for  recreation,  space  is  needed  immediately  ad- 
joining the  house. 

It  has  been  stated  that  the  plan  for  this  area  cannot  accomodate  a  great  variety 
of  features,  and  that  therefore  the  solution  must  lie  in  a  few  things  well  done. 
It  will  be  found  most  economical  of  space  and  attractive  in  appearance  if  the  main 
lines  of  the  plan  are  drawn  straight  and  parallel  to  the  boundaries.  Such  plans 
will  appear  artificial;  so,  also,  would  informal  effects  and  efforts  to  produce  "land- 
scape gardens."  The  former,  however,  will  look  formal  in  some  degree;  but  the 
latter  will  look  foolish.  It  should  be  remembered  that  these  are  city  gardens, 
and  that  therefore  conventionality  is  more  in  character  with  their  architectural 
surroundings.  The  practical  aspect  of  the  use  of  straight  lines  appeals  strongly 
to  the  writer,  for  in  his  opinion,  design  for  any  purpose,  in  order  to  be  good, 
must  also  serve  a  useful  end.  Side  boundaries  may  consist  of  flower  borders, 
hedges,  or  merely  a  garden  of  flowering  vines  climbing  on  the  fence;  in  any  case, 
a  single  feature  should  be  continuous  along  the  greater  part  of  the  distance  to  the 
back  fence.  With  a  feature  of  straight  outlines  extending  toward  the  back  fence, 
the  same  distance  will  appear  greater  than  if  its  outlines  were  curved,  for  simplici- 
ty and  a  greater  scale  will  thereby  be  expressed. 

Perhaps  it  is  important  to  speak  in  some  detail  concerning  the  practical  aspect 
of  the  use  of  straight  lines.  To  begin  with,  it  is  well  to  remember  that  the  areas 
with  which  one  is  dealing  will  average  about  forty  feet  in  width.  Assuming  this 
dimension,  the  walls  or  fences  on  the  two  sides  will  take  up  two  feet.  A  heavy 
growth  of  vines  will  occupy  a  like  amount;  and  hedges,  in  the  place  of  vines,  re- 
quire three  feet  each,  and,  when  old,  still  more.  A  vine-covered  fence  behind 
a  flower  border  would,  on  one  side,  occupy  a  total  of  10  feet.  This  is  one-fourth 
of  the  entire  width;  on  the  opposite  side,  accordingly,  the  minimum  would  be  the 
vine-covered  fence,  or,  better,  a  tall,  fine  hedge  to  balance,  in  some  degree,  the 
flower  border.  The  lawn  then  left  is  but  twenty-five  feet  wide.  Now,  were  the 
edge  of  the  flower  border  to  be  given  a  wavy  line,  notwithstanding  that  the  dis- 
tance is  short  for  the  use  of  curves,  and  assuming  the  minimum  width  for  flowers  to 


22 

be  less  than  eight  feet  and  the  maximum  not  over  ten,  what  would  be  the  results? 
It  should  be  recognized  that  it  is  difficult  to  maintain  good  effects  in  hardy-peren- 
nial borders  with  widths  of  less  than  eight  feet.  Since  this  is  so,  there  will  be  parts 
of  the  border  too  narrow  in  width  to  maintain  the  best  appearance.  More  serious, 
however,  will  be  the  unfortunate  appearance  of  the  open  lawn  which  will  have  a 
width  nearly  equal  to  that  of  the  bordering  features.  Looking  from  the  house, 
the  apparent  width  of  the  lawn  will  be  that  of  the  distance  between  the  farthest 
projections  of  the  border,  while  the  apparent  quality  of  the  flower  border  would 
be  that  of  its  narrowest  parts.  Does  not  this  mean  a  deal  of  trouble  for  a  curved 
line,  for  which,  after  all,  there  is  opportunity  in  neither  length  nor  degree?  Since 
the  first  consideration  with  respect  to  such  an  area  should  be  the  expression  of 
openness,  and  of  all  possible  spaciousness,  details  inconsistent  with  this  purpose 
cannot  be  good. 

The  greater  part  of  the  back  yard  should  be  thrown  into  an  open  lawn  or  court. 
Whatever  the  bordering  features,  the  width  of  the  lawn  should  be  greater  than  the 
sum  of  their  widths;  and  a  definite  expression  of  spaciousness  requires  a  subtantial 
majority  of  lawn  area. 

In  endeavoring  to  produce  the  effect  of  large  space,  there  are  several  details  well 
worth  observing.  Within  reasonable  dimensions,  the  higher  the  enclosure,  the 
larger  will  the  yard  appear.  The  gardenlike  and  out-door-room  effect  of  the  yard, 
so  much  to  be  desired,  requires  a  fence  height  of  at  least  six  feet.  Americans 
are  not  accustomed  to  high  walls,  but  when  they  make  a  garden,  their  tendency  is 
unquestionably  toward  higher  barriers.  If  the  yard  is  to  be  enjoyed,  privacy  is 
essential;  and  at  least  at  some  points,  if  not  all,  fences  should  be  even  higher  than 
six  feet.  Again,the  effect  of  space  in  a  lawn  will  be  increased  if  the  side  borders 
have  an  even  and  neutral  surface.  For  example,  continuous  and  trimmed  hedges 
appear  longer  than  do  rows  of  shrubs  of  different  species  and  of  varying  heights. 
The  ground  width  likewise  appears  greater  if  the  surface  is  of  unbroken  turf  or 
of  uniform  pavement  rather  than  if  broken  by  walks  or  flowers  or  ground  cover, 
even  though  the  last  may  not  grow  materially  higher  than  the  grass.  In  every 
detail,  continuity  of  surface  increases  scale. 

If  back  yards  have  a  depth  not  much  greater  than  their  width  (that  is,  speaking 
now  merely  of  the  area  behind  the  house),  it  is  best  to  plan  the  whole  yard  as  one 
scene.  If  the  depth  is  sufficient  to  subdivide  and  still  leave  an  open  lawn  adjoin- 
ing the  house,  approximately  as  described  above,  then  a  hedge  or  like  barrier  may 
be  carried  straight  across  the  rear  and  the  enclosure  devoted  to  a  salad  garden, 
flowers,  or  any  other  purpose.  Lot  widths  of  forty  feet  or  less  will  not  as  a  rule, 
permit  subdivisions  parallel  to  the  side  boundaries.  The  apparent  size  of  these 
yards  may  further  be  increased  by  placing  interesting  features,  such  as  summer- 
houses,  arbors,  trees,  or  even  flowers  of  somewhat  dominant  color,  at  the  far  end  of 
the  yard;  for  by  this  means  attention  is  focused  upon  more  distant  points  and  the 
greater  dimensions  are  thus  emphasized.  The  element  of  interest  in  the  yard  is 
also  thus  increased,  and  still  more  is  it  enhanced  when  it  is  possible  to  present 
from  the  viewpoint  of  such  an  arbor  or  seat,  an  entirely  different  picture,  such  as 
a  view  into  a  small  garden  or  merely  the  reverse  of  the  yard  scene. 

Few  persons  have  the  time  to  maintain  flowers,  and  frequently  it  is  difficult  to 
procure  intelligent  care  for  them.  It  is  quite  possible  to  design  interesting 
flower  features  with  annuals,  which  may  be  gardened  by  men  sent  from  the 


23 

florists;  but  more  artistic  ability  is  required  to  plan  annuals  beautifully  than  is 
necessary  to  use  the  hardy  perennials  properly,  and  in  this  country  it  is  rarely 
well  done.  Nevertheless,  in  a  small  space  it  is  possible  to  use  annuals  with  better 
effect  than  perennials.  If  flower  beds  can  be  made  sufficiently  wide,  and  if  the 
perennials  are  closely  grouped,  it  is  still  possible  to  use  a  few  perennials  and  at 
the  same  time  reduce  the  item  of  care.  There  are,  in  back  yards,  no  interesting 
assets  to  build  upon,  and  one  must,  "out  of  whole  cloth,"  create  a  garden.  It 
may  be  very  like  a  room,  or  a  very  formal  one,  or  merely  a  trim  and  orderly  one. 
It  may  be  dressed  with  flowers  or  with  apparently  useful  architectural  features; 
it  may  be  made  to  require  considerable  care,  or  to  require  but  grass-cutting 
and  trimming, — all  entirely  according  to  personal  taste  or  other  circumstances. 
If  the  opening  is  too  small  for  grass,  it  may  be  paved,  and  thus  require  only 
sweeping.  But,  whatever  the  the  limitations,  and  however  it  is  to  be  used,  be 
it  no  more  than  the  European  peasant's  garden — a  vine-clad  arbor — the  smallest 
space  may  be  made  to  serve  fittingly  for  pleasant  and  retired  out  door  life. 

As  has  already  been  suggested,  rather  than  have  very  narrow  passages  between 
buildings,  it  is  better  to  have  none.  If  houses  are  made  wider  they  can  also  be 
narrower,  thus  allowing  the  otherwise  useless  space  at  the  sides  to  be  added  to  the 
well- lighted  yard  area.  If  there  is  the  possible  necessity  of  an  automobile  drive, 
either  for  immediate  or  for  future  use,  it  is  worth  while  to  sacrifice  all  space  on  one 
side  in  order  to  allow  for  a  drive  on  the  other.  The  automobile  drive  may  or 
may  not  be  combined  with  an  entrance  walk  to  lead  to  a  main  entrance  at  the 
side  of  the  house.  (There  are  advantages  in  such  a  first-floor  arrangement,  as 
the  front  is  then  unbroken,  and  may  be  entirely  devoted  to  rooms  needing  good 
light.)  Perhaps  herein  is  the  greatest  possibility  for  the  use  of  narrow  side  space. 
These  strips  of  land  between  houses  are  ordinarily  unused  except  for  a  walk  to 
the  kitchen,  and  are  dark  and  damp,  with  narrow  pavement  and  much  bare 
ground.  They  should  either  serve  some  purpose  and  be  prepared  therefor,  or 
the  space  had  better  be  covered  by  the  house.  There  is  considerable  aversion 
to  blocks  of  houses;  but  detached  houses  with  but  five  or  ten  feet  between  them 
are  no  better.  The  semi-detached  house  (double  house)  is  a  very  good  expedient 
by  which  to  save  from  three  to  five  feet  of  otherwise  useless  side-yard  space. 
Frequently  with  this  arrangement,  ten  or  fifteen  feet  may  be  obtained  on  one 
side,  thus  affording  ample  opportunity  for  a  side  entrance.  This  feature  appeals, 
as  it  affords  a  use  for  the  side  strip  of  land,  and  insures  its  solution  and  good 
appearance.  The  problem  of  the  side-yard  strips  in  many  instances  means 
merely  making  these  places  look  neat.  With  bare  ground,  they  represent  a 
failure.  If  grass  will  not  grow,  it  may  be  that  an  evergreen  "ground  cover" 
will  thrive;  but  if  nothing  will  grow,  gravel  or  pavement  will  have  to  be  the 
solution.  Pavements  drain  well  and  are  easily  cleaned;  but  the  gravel,  though 
requiring  an  occasional  raking,  relieves  the  monotony  of  too  much  pavement. 
Where  a  sidewalk  passes  close  to  a  building  (within  one  or  two  feet),  either  the 
paving  of  the  walk  should  be  extended  to  the  wall  of  the  building,  or  the  space 
between  should  be  filled  in  witn  stone.  It  is  quite  possible  to  make  these  passages 
look  well.  The  entrance  to  the  house,  or  the  entrance  to  the  back  yard  may  be 
improved  and  decorated  by  a  gate  of  good  design.  Some  persons  object  to  a 
main  entrance  at  the  side  if  kitchen  service  must  share  its  use,  but  this  considera- 
tion need  in  no  way  interfere.  In  many  houses  now-a-days  the  kitchens  are  on 


24 

the  front  rather  than  in  the  rear.  Thus  there  may  be  a  service  walk  on  one  side 
of  a  house  and  a  main-entrance  walk  on  the  other,  and  there  is  no  difficulty  in 
so  marking  the  walks  as  to  clearly  distinguish  them,  difference  in  width  alone 
being  usually  sufficient. 

Walks  leading  from  the  side  passages  need  not  continue  in  the  same  straight 
line  after  passing  the  house.  If  they  are  too  near  the  lot  boundary,  they  should 
be  "stepped"  away  from  the  boundary-line  hedge  or  fence  to  a  distance  one 
foot  greater  than  the  walk  width.  While  it  is  well  to  preserve  the  unbroken 
width  of  the  lawn,  a  sufficient  border  of  green  is  very  necessary.  Allow  ample 
widths  for  main  walks,  and,  if  they  may  be  made  interesting  in  any  detail  without 
appearing  fussy,  the  decoration  will  be  well  placed. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  ARRANGEMENT  OF  AVERAGE  SUBURBAN  LOTS 

(LOTS  75  to   150  FEET) 

Among  the  owners  of  suburban  homes  are  to  be  found  many  enthusiastic 
amateur  gardeners,  and  in  many  of  our  cities,  at  least  in  their  newer  sections, 
there  is  evidence  in  plenty  of  such  interest  and  of  effort  to  make  attractive  yards. 
In  yards  with  frontages  of  from  seventy-five  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet,  and 
with  depths  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  or  more,  there  is  considerable  oppor- 
tunity. This  opportunity,  however,  may  be  lost  if  the  available  space  is  not 
used  to  the  best  advantage.  The  placing  of  houses,  as  well  as  their  plans,  should 
be  carefully  studied  in  relation  to  the  lots  selected  for  them.  Most  lots  of  this 
size  are  comparatively  flat  and  level,  and  the  problem  of  planning  these  is  there- 
fore largely  concerned  with  the  allotment  of,  and  the  effect  of,  space.  The  best 
results  require  that  plans  for  both  house  and  yard  be  drawn  up  simultaneously. 

The  designing  of  lots  of  this  size  differs  from  that  of  the  narrower  lots  pre- 
viously discussed  most  noticeably  in  that  there  is  here  some  opportunity  for  the 
development  of  interesting  side  yards.  While  it  is  pleasant  to  have  ample  space 
on  both  sides  of  a  house,  without  more  frontage  than  the  average  suburban  lot 
affords,  this  is  impossible.  It  is  usually  best  to  place  a  house  as  close  to  one  side 
boundary  as  will  permit  of  a  driveway  and  good  light,  thus  saving  all  the  re- 
maining width  on  the  other  side  for  a  garden  or  some  gardenlike  feature.  Of 
course  houses  with  symmetrically  designed  fronts  and  central  entrances  will 
have  to  appear  to  be  in  the  center  of  their  lots  in  order  to  look  well,  but  probably 
this  type  of  house  is  less  common  among  residences  of  moderate  size.  The 
possibilities  for  developing  interesting  side  yards  depends,  not  entirely  upon 
the  width  of  a  lot,  but  also  upon  the  width  of  a  house,  and  even  upon  the  prox- 
imity of  adjoining  houses.  One  feels  more  free  to  place  his  house  close  to  either 
side  boundary,  or  to  lay  out  gardens  in  side  yards,  if  the  houses  on  ad  joining  lots 
are  not  too  close;  or,  in  case  of  vacant  lots  adjoining,  if  the  established  restrictions 
regulate  the  nature  of  all  structures  and  their  nearness  to  boundary  lines. 

If  it  is  feasible  to  have  the  greatest  dimension  of  a  house  from  front  to  back, 
then  space  in  the  side  yard  may  be  gained.  As  the  fronts  of  such  houses  must 
necessarily  be  tall  and  narrow,  and  not  always  so  pleasing  in  appearance  as  are 
their  longer  side  views,  which  emphasize  their  length  rather  than  their  height,  it 
is  usually  better  to  place  the  house  broadside  to  the  street.  At  times  an  L-shaped 
house  plan  may  be  used,  leaving  a  small,  courtlike  yard  on  one  side,  either  toward 
the  front  or  toward  the  back  of  the  house.  Lot  widths  which  would  not  otherwise 
afford  ample  side-yard  gardens,  may,  by  some  such  forethought  in  planning  the 
house,  allow  a  side-yard  garden  and  at  the  same  time  produce  the  effect  of  the 
broad  side  of  the  house  toward  the  street.  With  these  suggestions,  or  with 
similar  care  in  the  planning  of  houses  or  in  the  placing  of  them,  lots  narrower 
than  seventy-five  feet  front  may  offer  some  opportunity  for  side-yard  develop- 
ments. In  selecting  a  lot,  one  should  take  note  of  both  its  width  and  its  depth, 
and  of  its  possibilities  and  its  adaptibility  to  his  requirements. 

25 


26 


27 

In  properties  of  this  size,  front  yards  may  reasonably  be  allowed  greater  depth 
than  the  front  yards  of  narrower  lots.  Building  lines  should  be  adhered  to,  but, 
within  a  variation  of  from  ten  to  fifteen  feet,  houses  may  project  beyond  or  recede 
from  such  a  line  according  as  the  best  allotment  of  front  and  back  space  may 
demand.  Oftentimes  it  is  diffcult  to  convince  persons  of  the  advantage  of  small 
front  yards.  The  idea  that  a  house  placed  well  back  gives  the  appearance  of  an 
ample  lot  is  by  no  means  uncommon.  Very  likely,  however,  such  persons  have 
in  mind  examples  involving  much  larger  houses.  But  it  should  be  remembered 
that  an  overly  large  front  yard  makes  the  front  of  a  small  house  appear  yet  smaller. 
It  is  seldom  that  any  ill  effects  result  from  even  unusually  small  front  areas, 
assuming,  of  course,  that  the  plans  provide  for  porches  at  the  side  or  at  the  rear, 
as  they  should  be. 

The  most  important  aspect  of  the  building-line  question  is  that  of  planning 
for  the  large  open-lawn  area  in  the  rear.  For  both  use  and  the  best  appearance 
of  a  completed  scheme,  sacrifices  should  always  be  made  in  the  front  to  provide 
for  a  large  lawn  in  the  rear,  or  at  the  side  and  in  the  rear. 

Fince  the  general  appearance  of  the  street  reflects  on  each  individual  property 
thereon,  it  is  important  to  have  a  proper  building  line  to  begin  with,  and  then 
to  adhere  to  this  established  line  if  possible,  or  at  least,  to  disguise  any  necessary 
discrepancy.  As  has  already  been  said,  marked  variations  on  a  street  are  not 
pleasant  and  are  apt  to  mar  the  appearance  of  the  entire  street.  These  discordant 
differences  may  consist  in  the  use  of  unlike  styles  of  architecture,  in  the  use  of 
both  open  and  enclosed  front  yards,  or  in  any  impropriety  in  the  details  of  front- 
yard  plans.  The  distinctiveness  of  a  street,  and,  in  many  cases,  its  actual  land 
values,  increase  with  the  uniformity  and  appropriateness  of  its  houses  and  yards. 
There  is  always  room  for  interesting  variation  within  the  bounds  of  reasonable 
uniformity.  Many  persons  mistake  mere  incongruity  for  variety.  It  is  en- 
tirely to  be  expected  that  a  street  should  have  some  unity,  and  for  the  want  of 
this  unity  most  of  the  streets  of  our  suburbs  are  not  as  beautiful  as  they  might 
be.  The  same  idea  imbues  whole  suburbs  and  villages;  and  would  that  there 
were  some  hope  that  it  might  one  day  be  corrected  in  our  cities!  The  similarity 
of  the  homes  is  the  main  factor  making  for  the  charm  of  many  European  villages  and 
cities.  Although  as  individuals  not  all  of  these  homes  are  interesting,  at  least 
they  are  neither  unattractive  nor  ugly.  There  is  variety  in  plenty,  and  it  is  the 
subsequent  discovery  of  this  variety,  more  noticeable  when  seen  at  close  quarters, 
that  sustains  the  charm  of  city,  village,  or  street.  New  suburban  developments 
in  American  cities  might  well  take  this  lesson  from  Europe,  or  from  those  of  cur 
own  old  villages  still  to  be  found  in  undisturbed  sections  along  the  Atlantic 
Coast.  The  house  and  front  yard  which  betray  their  owner's  desire  for  notoriety 
betray  alsft  far  worse  faults,  and  with  a  vengeance! 

As  has  already  been  suggested,  with  the  exception  of  those  having  symmetrical 
fronts,  it  is  rarely  good  policy  to  place  houses  midway  between  their  side  bound- 
aries. The  plans  for  most  houses  provide  a  large  living  room  with  two  smaller 
first-floor  rooms  on  one  side,  and  place  the  dining  room  and  the  kitchen  on  the 
other.  In  any  case,  the  kitchen  must  of  necessity  be  on  one  side,  and  its  location 
should  determine  the  side  on  which  to  plan  for  out  door  service.  Hence,  in  order 
to  correlate  the  out  doors  with  the  in  doors,  it  is  evident  that  the  driveway  should 
be  located  on  the  kitchen  side  where  it  will  be  needed  for  everyday  service  to  the 


28 

kitchen,  the  ice-doors,  and  the  like,  as  well  as  for  the  occasional  filling  of  the  coal 
bins.  The  garage  should  also  be  placed  in  connection  with  the  service  vard. 
The  drive  may  be  made  equally  convenient  as  a  main  entrance,  regardless  of 
which  side  of  the  house  it  is  placed.  Hence  in  properties  of  this  size  the  driveway 
is  preferably  on  the  service  side  of  the  house,  and  this  may  well  be  at  that  side 
of  the  house  which  is  nearest  the  boundary. 

If  the  dining  room  must  be  on  the  side  overlooking  such  a  driveway,  this 
need  not  be  considered  unfortunate,  for  a  dining  room  does  not  need  especially 
beautiful  outlooks  as  much  as  does  the  living  room.  The  dining  room  is  used  for 
considerably  less  time  than  is  the  living  room,  and  one  is  somewhat  preoccupied 
during  meals,  and  much  of  the  time  meals  are  served  when  it  is  quite  too  dark  to 
see  outside  anyway.  Morning  sunlight  in  the  dining  room  and  in  the  kitchen 
is,  however,  very  desirable.  Also,  it  is  quite  possible,  even  in  small  and  unpre- 
tentious houses,  to  arrange  for  the  serving  of  occasional  meals  on  the  rear  porch 
or  on  the  terraces.  First-floor  plans  may  dispose  of  a  kitchen  toward  the  front 
or  toward  the  back  of  the  house  but  always  adjoining  the  driveway,  and  still 
allow  for  a  dining  room  that  will  command  some  view  toward  the  rear  if  this 
seems  preferable  to  the  front  outlook;  but  in  any  case,  when  a  choice  must  be 
made,  it  is  both  reasonable  and  feasible  to  correlate  the  dining  room  primarily 
with  the  service  side  of  a  house;  and  it  is  likewise  reasonable  for  the  service  side 
of  a  house  to  be  quite  near  the  side  boundary. 

What,  then,  are  the  minimum  requirements  for  space  on  the  service  side  of  a 
house?  The  driveway  need  be  no  wider  than  eight  feet,  and  this  width  is  neces- 
sary only  for  safety  in  darkness  and  when  excessive  snow  makes  it  difficult  to  keep 
the  road.  In  addition  to  a  driveway,  it  is  highly  desirable  to  have  room  for  a 
strong  boundary  hedge,  which,  in  maturity,  may  require  five  feet  of  ground  space 
and  become  ten  or  twelve  feet  high.  One  may  think  he  will  not  want  so  large  a 
hedge,  but  it  is  better  to  allow  for  space  for  it,  if  possible,  as  the  desire  for  a  higher 
hedge  may  grow  faster  than  the  hedge.  Some  turf  is  desirable  between  the  house 
and  the  drive,  and  likewise  between  the  drive  and  the  hedge,  wall,  or  fence. 
It  is  also  likely  that  one  or  more  shrubs  will  be  wanted  at  the  house  corners. 
Hence  it  is  hardly  safe  to  allow  less  than  from  ten  to  fifteen  feet  between  the 
house  and  the  boundary  on  the  narrow  side.  But,  with  this  explanation  of  the 
factors  involved,  rather  than  to  endeavor  to  lay  down  fixed  dimensions  for  ex- 
tremely variable  conditions,  it  would  be  better  to  suggest  that  the  precise  position 
of  the  house  with  respect  to  its  side  boundaries  should  be  determined  only  after 
due  consideration  of  the  plans  for  both  sides  of  the  house.  It  is  not  desirable  to 
have  cramped  appearances  in  any  situation,  and  only  by  patient  study  may 
the  best  allotment  of  space  on  all  sides  be  obtained. 

While  for  the  necessary  and  work  elements,  space  may  be  limited  to  the  extent 
of  convenience  and  satisfactory  appearance,  there  is  no  limit  to  the  area  and  to  the 
opportunity  desirable  for  the  recreational  elements,  both  inside  and  out.  There- 
fore it  is  fortunate  if  living  rooms,  porches,  and  terraces  can  be  on  the  sunny  sides 
of  houses,  and  overlook  the  wider  side  yards  and  ample  rear  areas  as  well.  There 
are  times  of  the  year  and  times  of  the  day  when  each  side  of  a  house  is  more 
pleasant  than  the  others,  but  for  a  greater  part  of  the  time  the  sunny  sides  are 
more  pleasant.  Furthermore,  most  plants  grow  best  in  full  sunlight,  and  this  is 
especially  to  be  desired  close  to  the  buildings.  It  is  far  easier  to  make  those 


29 

lawns  and  gardens  successful  which  are  the  least  shadowed  by  the  house.  It  is 
quite  possible  to  plan  interesting  out  door  courtyards  and  gardens  of  limited 
extent,  but  most  schemes  may  be  improved  by  more  space  and  more  sunlight. 
Only  by  careful  study  of  plans  for  gardens  or  gardenlike  features  can  the  precise 
amount  of  space  necessary  be  determined,  and  a  wise  apportionment  made  be- 
tween the  garden  side  and  the  service  side  of  the  property. 

It  is  usually  possible,  and  of  course  always  desirable,  to  reserve  the  largest 
open  space  for  rear  lawns.  In  case  no  special  side-yard  features  are  wanted, 
this  space  may  be  incorporated  with  the  rear.  The  area  necessary  for  a  garage, 
a  clotheb  yard,  vegetable  gardens,  and  the  like,  should  be  carefully  and  compactly 
planned  and  limited  in  amount  in  order  to  save  as  much  as  possible  for  the  rear 
lawn.  As  has  already  been  stated,  this  open  space  should  appear  to  be  the 
largest  open  &pace  on  the  property.  It  is  not  necessary  to  devote  this  yard  all 
to  a  lawn;  instead,  it  may  include  a  tennis  court,  an  orchard,  or  some  similar 
variation.  But  an  informal  effect  and  breadth  of  scenery  are  to  be  striven  for 
in  the  development  of  this  yard.  It  may  be  a  beautiful  thing  in  itself,  but  it  is 
primarily  a  setting  for  the  varied  recreational  activities  of  an  entire  family. 
The  rear  yard  is  the  only  opportunity  on  a  small  property  for  the  expression  of 
extent  of  scene,  and  it  is  here  that  extent  can  be  made  most  evident  and  most 
useful. 

The  elevation  of  a  house  with  respect  to  the  grade  of  the  yard  has  an  important 
influence  on  the  circulation,  indoors  and  out,  and  its  appearance  also  depends 
on  correct  elevations.  The  effect  of  a  more  spacious  yard  may  be  obtained  by 
setting  the  house  low  on  the  ground.  Grade  lines  about  houses  are  matters  of 
the  design  of  each  individual  house.  In  some  cases  high  first  floors  are  to  be 
desired,  but  these  are  more  likely  to  be  in  keeping  with  larger  houses.  There 
are  instances  where  high  first  floors  are  not  desirable  but  necessary,  and  under 
these  circumstances  it  is  possible  to  disguise  the  excessive  difference  between 
the  outside  grade  and  the  inside  floor  level.  In  small,  unpretentious  houses,  it  is 
usually  best  to  keep  the  first  floor  level  very  near  that  of  the  ground,  that  is, 
from  12  to  24  inches  above  it;  and  under  ordinary  circumstances  there  are 
no  practical  difficulties  involved  in  such  an  arrangement.  The  outside  aspect  of 
a  house  set  low  is  far  more  pleasing,  and  from  the  inside  one  sees  the  yard  and  the 
gardens  in  a  more  intimate  relation.  The  difference  between  the  first-floor 
level  and  the  outside  grade  need  not  be  the  same  on  all  sides  of  a  house.  The 
grade  line  on  each  side  should  be  determined  by  the  design  of  the  house  and  in 
accordance  with  the  grade  conditions  of  the  lot  or  of  proposed  changes.  How- 
ever, in  regard  to  both  appearances  and  convenience,  requirements  as  to  grade 
will  vary  on  the  several  sides  of  a  house.  On  the  front,  or  entrance  side,  the 
house  may  properly  appear  to  stand  a  little  higher  out  of  the  ground  than  it 
should  on  the  sides  adjoining  the  lawns  or  gardens,  where  a  more  intimate  re- 
lation should  exist  between  the  gardens  and  the  windows  and  doors  of  the  living 
rooms.  Sometimes  it  is  desirable  to  express  some  formality  about  tjie  main 
entrance,  and  five  or  six  steps  at  the  front  door  may  then  look  well.  For  the 
sake  of  convenience  the  steps  at  a  kitchen  door  should  be  few.  More  important 
than  all  these  considerations,  however,  is  the  connection  between  the  living  rooms 
and  the  private  area.  The  nearer  the  outside  and  the  inside  elevations  can  be 
brought  together,  and  still  be  consistent  with  practical  considerations,  the  better. 


30 

The.  elevation  of  one  or  two  steps  is  sufficient  for  appearances  and  for  dryness, 
and  all  steps  should,  at  any  cost,  be  made  of  very  easy  pitch.  In  adopting  ratios 
for  outside  steps,  one  should  realize  that  the  situation  is  quite  different  from  that 
of  the  inside,  and  that  flights  indoors  which  are  good  would  be  very  impractical 
outside.  On  a  lot  where  the  ground  is  rolling  or  evenly  sloping,  if  it  is  not  econom- 
ical to  level  it  all  about  the  house,  the  grade  lines  may  well  be  varied  in  accordance 
with  these  requirements. 

Planning  for  sunlight  is  always  an  important  factor  in  the  designing  of  small 
properties.  Windows  are  not  likely  to  be  darkened  by  adjoining  houses  when 
lot  frontages  are  several  times  wider  than  the  house  fronts.  Nevertheless,  if 
buildings  can  be  turned  approximately  forty- five  degrees  to  the  points  of  the 
compass,  instead  of  directly  north  and  south  or  east  and  west,  interior  light  will 
be  better  and  more  evenly  distributed  during  every  day  in  the  year.  Likewise 
only  under  the  same  conditions  may  the  maximum  amount  of  sunlight  be  obtained 
about  the  exterior  of  the  house.  If  one  will  but  recall  where  the  sun  rises  and 
sets  in  the  different  seasons — in  summer  rising  and  setting  a  little  north  of  due 
east  and  west,  and  in  winter  a  little  south  of  due  east  and  west — the  reason  for  this 
suggestion  will  be  readily  understood.  Abundance  of  sunlight  is  one  of  the 
first  requirements  for  health.  This  has  been  appreciated  more  in  the  planning 
of  interiors  than  in  planning  yards.  But  not  only  the  insides  of  buildings,  but 
the  exteriors  of  houses  and  the  surface  of  the  ground  about  them  should  be 
designed  with  a  view  to  obtaining  plenty  of  sunlight.  In  fact,  all  ground  about 
buildings  should  be  exposed  to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  for  at  least  part  of  every 
day.  An  excess  of  sunlight  may  be  relieved  by  the  shade  of  tall  trees  over  the 
house,  and  cool  retreats  in  some  part  of  the  yard  are  quite  to  be  desired;  but 
about  buildings  the  dampness  due  to  permanent  shadows  should  be  avoided. 

Frequently  there  are  strips  of  ground  close  to  the  house  walls  in  which  but  few 
things  will  grow  because  of  the  excessive  shade.  If  a  little  sunlight  reaches  all 
sides  of  a  house,  one  thus  has  the  additional  advantage  of  being  able  to  raise 
successfully  a  greater  variety  of  plants,  or  even  good  turf  close  up  to  and  all 
about  the  foundations.  Nowhere  in  a  yard  is  thrifty  vegetation  more  necessary 
than  about  the  house,  and  therefore  both  dampness  due  to  too  much  shade,  and 
an  excessively  dry  condition  due  to  unnecessarily  wide  eaves,  should,  if  possible, 
be  avoided.  U-shaped  courts  on  the  northerly  sides  will  always  be  dark  and 
damp;  but  no  such  difficulty  will  result  from  L-shaped  houses  if  the  interior 
angle  is  so  oriented  as  to  receive  some  sunlight  during  the  winter  solstice.  Con- 
fined yards,  and  damp,  shaded  surfaces  of  bare  ground  are  with  difficulty  made 
fit  and  attractive  for  out  door  life.  Moreover,  they  are  by  no  means  healthful 
places  for  children  to  play  in.  A  considerable  and  worthwhile  advantage  is 
obtained  by  eliminating  excess  shade,  and  it  should  be  remembered  that  such 
precautions  will  at  the  same  time  improve  the  conditions  both  indoors  and  out. 

While  the  factor  of  sunlight  is  important,  on  small  lots  houses  must  be  parallel 
with  the  streets  on  which  they  face.  In  the  case  of  properties  of  several  acres  in 
extent,  few  if  any  difficultis  are  encountered  in  so  orienting  and  planning  the 
houses  as  to  obtain  the  desired  light.  Therefore  those  who  purchase  lots  of  a 
half  acre  or  less  should  choose  streets  running  either  northwest  and  southeast  or 
northeast  and  southwest,  or  those  of  curved  or  irregular  lines  which  will  allow 
the  desired  freedom  in  the  placing  of  buildings.  Residential  developments  on 


31 

steep  hillsides,  and  topography  of  a  rough  and  irregular  nature  will,  of  course, 
require  winding  roadways  of  approach,  and  will  result  in  lots  of  varied  form  and 
outline.  Space  in  yards  may  be  more  economically  planned  if  the  houses  are 
parallel  to  the  lot  lines,  but  in  the  case  of  irregular  lot  lines,  the  principle  does  not 
apply  with  the  same  force  as  in  rectangular  lots.  Such  irregular  situations  are 
not  citylike  but  picturesque,  and  therefore  greater  liberties  many  be  taken, 
with  safety  and  with  success. 

Lots  with  from  fifty  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet  frontage  afford  greater 
opportunity  of  development  than  do  those  still  narrower,  but  it  should  be  re- 
membered that  the  possibilities  of  such  yards  are  nevertheless  comparatively 
limited.  Careful  planning  of  their  space  should,  as  always,  preface  any  actual 
work  on  their  development.  It  is  advisable  to  select  a  lot  suited  to  one's  re- 
quirements, as  not  only  will  it  be  easier  and  less  expensive  to  develop,  but  there 
is  also  far  greater  possibility  of  its  realizing  one's  ideal.  Starting,  then,  with 
the  advantage  of  suitable  conditions,  one  should  be  careful  to  proceed  logically, 
giving  attention  to  the  various  aspects  of  the  problem  in  the  order  of  their  im- 
portance. The  house  should  be  located  and  planned  with  due  consideration  for 
the  space  needed  about  it  for  outside  features.  Also,  the  first-floor  rooms  and 
the  doors  and  the  windows  should  all  be  properly  related  to  the  outside  features. 
The  general  outlines  of  the  whole  plan  should  be  studied  with  special  regard  to 
the  proper  allotment  of  space,  the  practicability  and  the  possibility  of  the  neces- 
sary use  and  of  the  desired  effects, — and  in  this  broader  aspect  should  the  entire 
plan  be  determined  before  any  details  are  considered.  No  more  should  be  at- 
tempted than  may  be  well  done.  Properties  of  larger  extent  can  not  be  taken 
as  models.  There  is  not  space  for  a  great  number  of  features  nor  for  a  variety 
of  effects.  Simplicity  should  rule  in  the  appearance  of  the  whole  and  in  all  the 
details.  The  several  yards  and  gardens  should  be  few  in  number  and  simple  in 
character;  and  decoration,  sparingly  used,  should  be  applied  only  to  such  objects 
as  seats,  gateways,  and  the  like,  which  are  seemingly  useful. 


V 


LANDSCAPE  PLANNING 
FOR  SMALL  HOMES 


LANDSCAPE  PLANNING 
FOR  SMALL  HOMES 


COPYRIGHT 
E.  GORTON  DAVIS 

DEPARTMENT  OF  LANDSCAPE  ARCHITECTURE 

COLLEGE  OF  ARCHITECTURE,  CORNELL  UNIVERSITY 

1922 


CHAPTER  IV 
DETAILS  OF  PLANNING  FOR  AVERAGE  CITY  LOTS 

In  starting  a  plan,  it  is  highly  essential  that  one  school  himself  to  see  at  first 
only  general  outlines,  relationships  between  main  parts,  and  general  propor- 
tions. It  was  the  purpose  of  the  preceding  chapter  to  emphasize  the  necessity 
of  studying  these  fundamentals  before  giving  thought  to  details.  One  starts 
with  an  outline  of  his  lot,  drawn  to  a  known  scale.  To  suggest  a  house,  its 
position,  and  the  approximate  areas  alloted  to  front,  back,  and  sides, — in  fact, 
to  tell  the  whole  story, — a  square  or  rectangular  outline,  also  drawn  to  scale, 
is  cut  from  a  piece  of  paper  to  represent  the  house,  and  this  is  placed  somewhere 
within  the  lot  outline.  The  square  representing  the  house  is  then  shifted  about 
to  different  positions,  until  the  proportions  of  the  front  and  the  back  areas  and 
of  the  sides  seem  about  right. 

Next,  one  may  begin  to  think  a  little  about  the  house  itself.  Considering  the 
points  of  the  compass  and  the  local  physical  conditions,  the  first-floor  plans 
for  the  house  should  be  drawn  accordingly.  Some  particular  outline  of  the 
ground  plan  may  seem  better  than  the  others  in  view  of  the  lot  width,  its 
orientation,  or  the  like.  Thence  one  may  proceed  to  plan  the  elevations  of  the 
house  and  to  arrange  the  yard,  the  subdivisions  of  the  several  areas,  and,  finally, 
the  details  of  the  house  and  of  the  yard.  It  is  highly  important  to  plan  thus  by 
a  logical  sequence  of  thought.  If  the  general  relationships  are  correct,  the  plan 
will  be  convenient.  If  the  proportions  between  the  areas  are  good,  the  finished 
scheme  will  be  pleasing,  even  though  the  details  may  be  crude.  Details  may  be 
changed;  but  a  house  may  not  easily  be  moved,  nor  house  plans  altered,  if  the 
original  position  or  plans  subsequently  prove  a  handicap  in  the  development  of 
the  yard.  If  one  is  primarily  interested  in  the  house,  he  should  yet  remember 
that  a  well-planned  yard  is  necessary  for  the  best  appearance  of  the  house; 
and,  of  course,  good  style  and  a  suitable  arrangement  of  the  house  are  equally 
essential  for  the  best  development  of  the  yard.  It  is  absolutely  necessary  to 
solve  a  plan  in  its  fundamentals  before  one  can  have  a  point  of  view  for  the  con- 
sideration of  its  details. 

As  has  already  been  suggested,  the  allotment  of  space  about  a  house  should, 
as  a  rule,  provide  the  greatest  amount  for  the  recreational  area — the  gardens 
and  the  private  lawn.  The  front  yard  should  be  next  in  size,  and  the  service 
area  the  smallest.  Variations  of  this  apportionment  are  not  only  quite  possible, 
but  often  desirable,  but  in  such  instances  a  satisfactory  appearance  will  require 
careful  attention  to  the  use  of  architectural  details  and  planting.  There  is  no 
rule  for  the  precise  proportions  desirable.  If  approximately  correct,  neither 
space,  nor  the  opportunity  for  the  apparent  correction  of  proportions  by  careful 
handling  of  details  will  be  lost.  Herein  lies  the  opportunity  for  a  good  designer, 
who  may  determine  these  fundamental  proportions  with  great  nicety,  and  there- 
by add  both  interest  and  usefulness  to  the  plan.  A  designer  may  formulate  the 
main  lines  of  a  plan  with  some  general  idea  of  its  finished  appearance;  but 
nevertheless  he  invariably  works  from  generalities  to  details — never  from 


details  to  generalities.  An  inexperienced  person  with  no  training  in  design  had 
better  deal  with  his  problem  step  by  step. 

The  front  yards  of  suburban  homes  should  be  planned  with  regard  to  much  the 
same  principles  as  are  recommended  for  the  corresponding  areas  in  small  city 
properties.  The  chief  function  of  the  front  yard  of  most  residences  is  to  furnish 
a  suitable  foreground  for  the  house  front.  Since,  admittedly,  the  house  front 
is  the  most  important  part  of  a  property  that  is  seen  from  the  street,  to  this  all 
else  becomes  subsidiary — walks  and  roads,  lawns,  vegetation,  and  the  like — • 
and  all  these  should  therefore  be  so  selected  and  so  arranged  as  to  make  for  the 
best  appearance  of  the  house.  Nor  should  its  appearance  during  the  spring  and 
summer  seasons  only  be  considered,  but  during  all  seasons;  and  special  effort 
should  be  made  to  obtain  an  effect  that  will  be  at  least  similar,  if  not  the  same, 
during  the  whole  year. 

If  the  need  of  space  in  the  rear  has  necessitated  an  unusually  small  front  yard, 
there  will  be  no  difficulty  in  arranging  for  its  satisfactory  treatment.  There  may 
be  but  little  need  for  planting,  the  walks  may  appear  best  straight  or  laid  to 
some  conventional  plan,  and  a  very  simple  and  trim  effect  may  seem  more  fitting ; 
but  the  appearence  of  the  whole  will  be  none  the  less  pleasing  than  if  it  were  more 
elaborate.  The  space  in  the  front  may  well  be  small  rather  than  large,  as,  by 
comparison  with  it,  the  house  front  is  thus  emphasized  rather  than  subordinatedt 
and,  furthermore,  the  width  of  the  front  is  thus  apparently  increased. 

Similarity  of  front  yards  on  any  street  is  much  to  be  desired,  and  one  should  at 
least  consider  the  customs  of  the  street  or  block,  whether  or  not  he  follows  them. 
Slight  variations  from  adjoining  yards  are  permissible  and  frequently  necessary, 
as  most  yards  are  not  well  done;  but  ill  appearances  are  less  likely  to  result  if 
front  yards  are  very  simple  and  plain.  Hedges  or  fences  on  the  street  line  seem  to 
be  coming  more  and  more  into  favor,  but  if  a  single  lot  of  meager  frontage  is  the 
only  one  in  the  block  that  is  hedged  or  fenced,  it  may  mar  the  appearance  of  the 
whole  street;  and,  furthermore,  the  lot  so  fenced  seldom  looks  as  well  as  was  ex- 
pected. As  a  rule,  small  front  yards  appear  larger  and  to  better  advantage  if  the 
center  is  open,  for  unbroken  lawns  alway  appear  larger.  The  front  yard  is  an 
entrance  to  the  house  as  well  as  a  foreground  for  the  house;  and  while  there  is  no 
reason  to  desire  a  great  expanse  of  lawn  there,  for  one  who  desires  all  possible  ap- 
pearance of  space  this  simple  scheme  is  best.  Indeed,  from  whatever  angle  one 
may  view  the  problem  of  this  area,  restrained  rather  than  complex  or  elaborate 
treatments  of  it  are  best.  As  was  mentioned  in  connection  with  narrow  city  lots, 
the  simplicity  and  breadth  of  scale  suitable  for  the  foreground  of  the  house  front 
are  also  more  likely  to  be  in  scale  with  the  larger  scenery  of  a  street. 

Vegetation  in  front  yards  should  be  but  sparingly  used,  should  be  of  similar 
tones  of  green,  and  should  be  arranged  about  the  edges  of  the  lawn  rather  than 
in  its  center.  Usually,  with  the  judicious  use  of  a  few  shrubs  at  the  steps  and  at 
the  house  corners  and,  in  some  cases,  with  shrubs  or  trees  grouped  on  the  boundary 
lines  near  the  house,  and  with  an  open  lawn,  the  general  requirements  of  the 
scene  are  satisfied. 

The  amount  of  planting  will  depend  somewhat  upon  the  size  of  the  area;  but 
a  front  always  looks  better  bare  of  vegetation  than  crowded  with  planting.  Sin- 
gle plants  that  are  large  and  shapely  are  no  more  expensive  than  a  number  of 
small  plants,  but  one  had  better  plant  but  one,  or  a  very  few,  small  shrubs,  and 
wait  for  them  to  grow,  than  to  plant  thickly  with  the  intention  of  thinning  out 


later,  for  such  thinning  is  apt  to  be  neglected.  Only  under  special  and  most 
unusual  conditions  should  planting  be  made  continuous  across  the  base  of  a  house 
front.-  The  most  important  position  for  plants  is  that  on  either  side  of  the  main 
house  entrance.  This  front  door  should  be  the  center  of  interest  of  the  who1e 
picture,  and  the  finest  shrubs  should  be  used  here — usually  a  pair  of  shapely  and 
similarly  formed  plants.  Rounded  forms  are  always  good,  and  in  fact,  are  usually 
better  than  conspicuous  pointed  forms,  since  the  door,  rather  than  the  plants,  is  to 
be  the  main  object  of  interest.  If  it  is  difficult  to  obtain  suitable  mature  plants, 
it  is  sometimes  possible  to  put  three  or  more  plants  together  to  make  one  large 
plant. 

At  the  house  corners  one  or  more  plants  frequently  look  well.  Here  either 
single  plants  or  compact  groups  should  be  used,  and  these  shrubs  may  be  taller 
than  those  at  the  door,  as  well  as  more  free-growing  in  habit.  If  there  is  a  garden 
on  one  side  of  the  house,  it  is  likely  that  dense  planting — a  shrub  border,  or  a 
hedge,  or  even  a  wall — from  the  house  to  the  boundary  will  be  required  to 
enclose  the  private  area.  If  continuous  border  planting  is  used,  the  plants 
composing  it  should  be  for  the  most  part  larger  shrubs,  or  medium-sized  or 
large  trees,  all  of  which  must  have  low  branches  from  the  ground  up.  This 
characteristic  is  essential  to  the  finished  appearance,  as  other  wise  the  bare  ground 
would  show  under  the  plants.  This  large  material  is  very  desirable,  in  order 
that  the  planting  as  a  whole  may  be  in  scale  with  the  tree-and-lawn  scenery 
of  the  street. 

Density  of  growth  and  color  of  foliage  are  factors  of  first  importance  in  the 
selection  of  plants  for  front  yards.  Flowers  on  shrubs,  or  herbaceous  flowering 
plants,  are  transient,  and  although  their  leaves  may  remain,  many  flowering 
plants  look  shabby  after  their  flowers  are  gone.  Some  shrubs  and  trees  have  a  habit 
of  branching  more  densely  than  others,  and  this  density  gives  them  a  winter  value, 
as  their  form  and  appearance  are  nearly  as  good  then  as  in  summer.  Shrubs 
which  in  winter  display  only  a  few  scraggly  branches  are  not  desirable  for  front- 
yard  use.  Evergreens  are  best  suited  for  the  front  yard,  at  least  in  part  and  where 
the  best  effects  are  desired,  but  one  should  be  advised  as  to  the  hardiness  of 
evergreens,  and  should  also  be  sure  of  their  ability  to  thrive  in  exposed,  or, 
perhaps,  dusty  situations.  In  the  selection  of  evergreen  or  deciduous  plants, 
dark  and  normal  greens  are  preferable.  If  flowering  shrubs  are  selected,  at  no 
time  during  the  growing  season  should  there  be  a  greater  predominance  of  flowers 
than  of  green  foliage,  and  white  flowers  are  always  best.  The  plant  element 
should  be  used  in  such  a  manner  as  not  to  attract  undue  attention  to  itself,  but 
rather  to  frame  and  to  set  off  the  front  door  and  the  house  front.  If  the  house 
is  symmetrical  in  design,  the  planting  should  be  nearly  or  quite  as  symmetrical; 
but  if  the  door  is  at  one  side  and  if  the  house  itself  is  nearer  one  side  of  the  lot 
than  the  other,  then  the  center  of  interest  should  be  kept  at  the  door  by  the  use 
of  more  planting,  taller  plants,  or  by  the  arrangement  of  more  interesting  plant 
groups  on  the  narrower  side. 

The  interest  should  be  centered  on  the  front  door,  and  balance  should  be 
restored  if  the  house  is  not  in  the  middle  of  its  lot,  and  this  can  be  accomplish- 
ed mainly  by  the  clever  arrangement  of  planting. 

It  is  not  always  necessary  to  resort  to  shrubs  for  front-yard  planting.  Es- 
pecially if  the  scale  of  design  is  large  and  if  the  house  is  dignified  in  appearance, 
trees  alone  may  accomplish  the  result,  and  that  in  a  more  simple  and  pleasing 


8 

manner.  A  tree  with  low  branches  sweeping  the  lawn  at  each  side  of  a  house 
may  frame  it  better  than  low-growing  vegetation.  If  the  house  is  not  in  the 
center  of  its  lot,  a  tall  tree  on  the  narrow  side  and  a  lower-growing  tree  on  the 
garden  side,  either  alone  or  grouped  with  small  trees,  may  balance  the  planting 
of  the  front  and  also  afford  an  interesting  background  for  a  side-yard  garden. 

There  are  many  possible  alternatives  to  these  suggestions,  and  doubtless  some 
that  are  particularly  fitting  for  front-yard  planting  schemes.  But  training  and 
experience  in  such  matters,  or  keen  observation  on  the  part  of  the  amateur,  is 
necessary  to  determine  them.  While  it  might  seem  unnecessary  to  put  it  in 
words,  in  order  that  there  shall  be  no  uncertainty,  let  us  say  that  in  small  front 
yards,  no  flower  beds  should  be  cut  out  of  the  lawn  and  no  specimen  plants  should  be 
planted  in  the  center  of  the  lawns;  and  probably  it  is  unnecessary  to  proscribe 
all  such  objects  as  iron  dogs,  deer,  vases,  and  gaily  painted  old  hot-water  boilers 
used  as  receptacles  for  flowers.  Unfurnished  yards  of  good  grass  look  better  than 
those  gaudy  with  unsuitable  and  poor  decoration  or  cluttered  with  too  much 
planting.  Frequently  the  best  front-yard  furnishing  is  that  which  is  the  least 
noticeable. 

To  that  side  of  the  house  on  which  are  located  the  living  rooms  should  be  ad- 
joined the  most  private  and  pleasingly  developed  part  of  the  yard.  This  area 
should  appear  to  be  the  largest  division  of  the  outdoor  space.  Whether  it  is  to  be 
separated  into  a  garden  and  a  lawn,  or  left  in  one  undivided  space,  or  otherwise 
arranged,  always  the  effect  of  amplitude  should  predominate.  It  may  be 
possible  to  subdivide  it  into  several  parts,  but  one  should  be  careful  that  such  an 
arrangement  does  not  diminish  its  apparent  size.  These  areas  may  be  regarded 
as  outdoor  rooms  of  the  home,  and  in  order  to  function  similarly  to  rooms  of  the 
house,  they  must  afford  privacy. 

Yards  without  any  privacy  receive  little  interest  from  their  owners,  as  they 
cannot  be  used.  And  it  is  in  the  full  realization  of  the  usefulness  of  this  area  that 
the  crux  of  the  outdoor  problem  lies.  One  may  own  a  house  in  the  city  and 
necessarily  live  in  a  city  block;  but  why  live  in  the  suburbs  of  a  city,  where  out- 
of-door  space  is  available,  and  derive  no  advantage  from  the  yard?  The  principal 
purpose  of  a  private  yard  is  to  afford  a  pleasant  and  restful  setting  for  recreation 
in  the  open  air.  Privacy  is  not  only  essential  to  the  usefulness  of  the  yard,  but  is 
also  requisite  for  desirable  views  from  the  adjoining  rooms.  The  living  rooms, 
are  more  interesting  if  some  views  from  the  windows  express  an  extension  of,  and 
an  appealing  variation  of,  the  living  quarters  of  the  house.  It  is  desirable  to 
have  pleasant  outdoor  life  at  home  as  well  as  at  a  summer  resort,  and  many  persons 
have  to  make  the  most  of  what  the  home  affords.  The  point  for  everyone  to 
realize  is  that  the  home  may  be  made  to  afford  more  pleasure  than  is  commonly 
derived  from  it. 

As  was  stated  in  the  opening  chapter,  there  is  evidence  in  plenty,  of  a  wide- 
spread interest  in  the  betterment  of  yards.  However,  it  has  hitherto  been  cus- 
tomary to  plan  a  yard  to  be  attractive  only  from  the  street  and  from  the  windows 
of  the  house.  The  efforts  to  improve  yards  have  therefore  consisted,  for  the  most 
part,  in  making  showy  plantations.  Every  suburban  home  should  have  an 
outdoor  room,  to  look  into,  and  to  live  in.  The  acid  test  of  the  fitness  of  any 
general  scheme  or  of  any  detail  proposed  for  the  private  part  of  the  grounds  should 
be  the  degree  in  which  it  possesses  this  roomlike  character.  If  the  space  is 
large  enough  to  be  divided  into  several  features — if  there  may  be  a  small  garden§ 


a  terrace,  or  a  courtyard,  and  still  allow  space  for  the  expression  of  an  ample  lawn — • 
it  is  well;  but  one  should  not  forget  that  the  extent  of  the  grounds  in  this  quarter 
will  be  more  effective  than  on  any  other  side  of  the  house.  Yard  improvement 
aims  to  afford  convenience  for  necessary  features  and  to  make  all  parts  of  the 
property  look  well,  but  it  purposes  primarily  to  save  space  and  to  bend  all  things 
toward  the  best  development  of  the  private  grounds.  Upon  success  in  this  part  of 
a  yard  depends,  largely,  the  success  of  the  whole  scheme. 

The  simplest  scheme  for  the  private  grounds  is  a  bordered  lawn  including  both 
the  side  yard  and  the  rear  area,  A  hedge  consisting  of  but  a  single  species  of 
shrub  or  tree  will  afford  the  desired  enclosure.  If  a  low  wire  fence  is  passed  through 
the  center  of  the  hedge  or  erected  on  the  outside,  a  hedge  may  be  made  almost  as 
effective  a  barrier  as  a  wall.  If  such  a  hedge  is  to  be  trimmed,  on  the  sides  only  or 
on  both  top  and  sides,  then,  of  course,  a  suitable  plant  should  be  selected.  Of 
course,  in  very  restricted  areas  only  hedges  or  architectural  barriers  are  suitable, 
as  they  occupy  less  space  than  free-growing  plantations.  Mixed  borders  of  flow- 
ering shrubs  may  also  be  arranged  as  a  hedge  and  thus  occupy  less  space  than 
curvilinear  borders.  Likewise,  but  little  space  is  necessary  for  a  trimmed  hedge 
with  groups  of  flowering  shrubs  or  trees  in  the  corners. 

It  is  more  satisfactory  to  enclose  lawns  with  free-growing  borders  of  trees  and 
flowering  shrubs,  carefully  arranged  with  respect  to  the  necessary  heights  and  the 
suitability  of  the  plants,  as  by  such  means  the  desired  enclosure  is  secured,  the 
flowers  and  the  fruits  of  the  plants  may  be  enjoyed  and  the  minimum  of  care  is 
required.  A  private  lawn  of  unconventional  character  requires  considerable 
space,  but  lots  of  one  hundred  by  two  hundred  feet  may  be  made  to  accomodate 
them  if  the  space  is  carefully  planned.  If  there  is  a  conventional  garden  or  even 
a  very  small  courtyard,  an  informal  lawn  is  a  pleasing  feature  in  contrast  with  the 
predominating  conventionality  of  the  house  and  the  remainder  of  the  yard.  If 
all  the  space  of  the  private  grounds  is  in  one  lawn,  flowering  borders,  even  in- 
cluding some  herbaceous  flowers,  will  furnish  the  gardenesque  character  desired. 
For  the  greater  part  of  the  growing  season  a  simple  lawn  furnishes  a  pleasant  and 
restful  outlook  from  the  house,  but  its  usefulness  is  more  that  of  a  playground 
than  of  a  garden.  While  the  so-called  informal  border  is  in  most  cases,  more 
satisfactory,  it  should  be  realized  that  in  very  small  yards  conventional  schemes 
such  as  hedges,  trimmed  or  untrimmed,  are  also  very  interesting,  will  furnish  the 
necessary  enclosure,  and,  what  is  more  important,  will  leave  more  space  available 
for  a  playground. 

Whether  or  not  the  need  of  a  garden  is  felt,  an  enclosure  smaller  than  the  lawn 
and  more  closely  connected  with  the  house  is"  much  to  be  desired.  While  an  ex- 
pression of  spaciousness  is  essential  in  a  lawn,  a  terrace  or  a  courtyard  or  a  small 
garden  needs  only  enough  space  for  a  company  to  sit  in  the  open,  as  they  would 
in  an  indoor  room.  If  there  is  a  space  for  a  panel  of  velvety  lawn  in  addition 
to  the  necessary  pavement,  or  if  it  is  possible  to  have  flowers  in  an  ample  border 
or  in  pots,  such  decoration  is  much  to  be  desired  and  is  quite  in  keeping.  Dry 
pavements  within  the  privacy  of  one's  immediate  yard  or  garden  are  at  times  con- 
venient and  attractive  places  for  outdoor  exercise,  and  also  for  other  reasons  it  is  for- 
tunate if  this  smaller  enclosure  is  not  too  limited.  But,  unless  a  house  is  large,  a 
small  area  is  better  suited  to  this  purpose  than  a  large  one.  As  one  uses  his  porch,  so 
would  he  use  a  terrace  or  a  small  garden  more  frequently  than  a  lawn.  In  fact, 


10 

passage  to  and  from  it  would  be  much  like  that  between  adjoining  rooms.  Con- 
sidering the  best  use  of  space  and  the  relation  of  this  private  enclosure,  together 
with  its  various  requirements,  to  the  house,  it  is  usually  preferable  to  locate  it  in  the 
side  yard. 

What,  then,  are  the  possibilities  and  the  limitations  in  planning  side-yard  gar- 
dens on  lots  varying  from  seventy-five  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  feet,  or  thereabouts, 
in  width?  To  begin  with,  the  level  of  this  area  should  be  as  near  the  level  of  the 
first  floor  of  the  house  as  is  practical.  The  cellar  of  the  house  should  be  planned  to 
receive  little  or  no  light  from  the  garden  side,  and  coal  windows  and  the  like  should 
be  on  other  sides  of  the  house.  With  a  masonry  house,  no  difficulties  will  arise  if  the 
ground  is  but  a  step  or  two  below  the  first  floor  level;  but  with  a  house  of  frame 
construction,  the  wooden  sills  must  be  protected  from  dampness,  and  for  these 
houses  two  or  three  steps  may  be  necessary.  While  it  is  desirable  that  gardens 
should  be  in  every  detail,  closely  related  to  the  house,  necessary  steps  in  excess  of 
one  or  two  may  be  made  attractive  by  the  use  of  porches  or  terraces  one  step  below 
the  house-floor  level,  and  in  exceptional  cases  decorative  stairways  may  be  appro- 
priate. While  it  is  possible  to  make  interesting  gardens  in  side  yards  at  levels  consid- 
erably below  that  of  their  houses,  the  area  of  such  gardens  is  apparently  reduced, 
and  due  to  loss  in  reciprocity  of  view  and  because  of  inconvenience  in  use,  the  much- 
desired  expression  of  intimacy  between  garden  and  living  room  is  impaired.  All 
steps  between  houses  and  gardens  should  be  made  in  such  a  ratio  of  rise  to  tread 
that  their  ascent  is  both  gradual  and  comfortable.  The  ratios  of  indoor  stairways 
are  not  suitable  for  out-of-door  stairways.  Rarely  should  garden  steps  be  steeper 
than  the  ratio  of  six  inches  rise  to  fourteen  inches  tread,  and  frequently  the  rise 
should  be  even  less  in  proportion  to  the  tread,  in  order  to  express  better  the  close 
relationship  between  the  various  levels.  Abruptness  in  outdoor  steps,  especially 
in  features  closely  related  to  a  house,  makes  for  crude  appearances  and  seriously 
mars  an  otherwise  interesting  garden. 

The  least  conventional  scheme  for  this  private  side-yard  enclosure  is  a  small 
lawn  with  a  free-growing  border  of  shrubs.  To  attempt  a  curvilinear  outline  for 
the  planting  around  this  area  is  unwise,  as  it  is  wasteful  of  space,  appears  forced, 
and  is  utterly  inconsistent  with  the  requisite  conventionality  of  this  area  which  is 
so  closely  related  to  the  house.  Therefore,  whether  the  bordering  shrubs  are  to 
be  trimmed  as  a  hedge  or  allowed  to  grow  naturally,  they  should  be  arranged  in 
straight  lines.  If  the  effect  of  a  trimmed  hedge  is  desired,  those  shrubs  or  trees 
should  be  selected  which  will  make  good  and  proper  hedges.  Of  course,  trimmed 
hedges  make  for  a  more  formal  effect  than  free-growing  hedges,  and  architectural 
barriers,  whether  used  wholly  or  in  part,  will  add  a  still  greater  degree  of  conven- 
tionality. If  more  than  one  species  of  flowering  shrubs  are  used,  the  several 
kinds  should  be  disposed  in  a  balanced  arrangement,  whether  evenly  mixed  or 
massed.  If  garden  flowers  are  to  be  used  within,  hedges,  walls,  or  lattices  should 
be  provided  as  a  suitable  background.  A  balanced  arrangement  of  potted  flowers 
or  of  larger  plants  in  tubs  is  a  simplified  expression  of  this  grass-covered  and  hedge- 
bordered  garden. 

Elaboration  of  this  side-yard  living  room  should  deal  first  with  its  essentials — 
the  surrounding  barrier  and  the  ground  covering — rather  than  with  its  decoration. 
An  effective  barrier  is  necessary  to  make  an  interesting  interior  and  to  insure 
privacy,  if  the  garden  is  to  be  enjoyed.  Hedges  should  be  dense  from  the  base  to 
the  top.  As  they  will  need  to  be  high,  one  can  well  afford  to  make  them  wide. 


II 

A  kind  of  shrub  or  tree  which  grows  tall  needs  to  be  allowed  to  grow  to  considerable 
width  also,  in  order  to  remain  thrifty.  Shrubs  should  be  set  in  two  or  more  rows 
to  assure  the  achievement  of  density.  By  a  careful  selection  of  plants,  it  is 
possible  to  use  a  row  of  tall-growing  shrubs  with  a  row  of  lower-growing  shrubs  on 
either  side,  thus  obtaining  greater  height  and  at  the  same  time  being  certain  of 
density  at  the  base.  The  heights  should  shut  out  views  from  adjoining  property, 
from  the  street,  and  also,  to  some  extent,  cut  off  the  remainder  of  the  yard.  Closely 
neighboring  houses  frequently  make  privacy  difficult  of  attainment  in  side-yard 
gardens.  If  there  is  no  space  for  tall,  slender  trees  along  the  property  line,  an  over- 
hanging lattice,  a  pergola,  or  awnings  about  the  edges  or  against  the  far  side  of  the 
garden  may  be  necessary  to  afford  some  private  retreat  within  the  area.  Archi- 
tectural barriers  will  be  necessary  when  there  is  no  space  for  free-growing  plant- 
ing or  even  for  hedges.  Walls  or  lattices  should  be  of  simple  design  and  should  be 
both  in  keeping  with  small  houses  and  comparatively  inexpensive.  If  there  is  no 
ground  space  for  flowers  or  other  decoration,  some  color  may  be  provided  by  the 
enclosing  plantations,  or  by  vines,  or  walls,  or  lattices.  If  there  are  flowers  within 
the  garden,  however,  the  hedges  or  walls  should  be  planned  as  backgrounds  only. 
However,  decoration  is  not  a  first  necessity,  as  interest  may  be  supplied  and  main- 
tained by  a  handsome  pavement,  hedges  perfect  to  the  extent  of  being  beautiful,  and 
distinctive  and  inviting-looking  chairs  and  seats.  If  it  has  the  appearance  of 
comfort  and  retirement,  any  feature — garden,  courtyard,  or  terrace — will  have 
its  appeal;  it  will  have  atmosphere. 

There  will  be  many  occasions  when  one  would  like  to  use  his  garden  or  courtyard 
but  cannot  because  of  its  dampness,  if  the  entire  surface  be  grass  covered.  It 
is  best,  therefore,  to  have  some  part  of  the  area  in  a  satisfactory  and  interesting 
pavement,  in  order  that  in  all  moderate  weather  this  outdoor  room  may  be  used. 
While  a  grass  surface  in  perfect  condition  is  beautiful,  it  is  very  difficult  to  keep 
even  and  perfect  if  it  is  partially  shaded  or  if  it  receives  very  hard  wear.  Hence, 
for  very  small  areas  it  is  best  not  to  attempt  grass  but  to  resort  to  stone,  which 
may  be  made  none  the  less  interesting.  If  the  space  available  for  side-yard 
gardens  is  large  enough,  its  surface  may  be  interestingly  varied  with  walks  and 
panels  of  grass,  and  even  with  beds  of  flowers. 

The  boundaries  of  a  side- yard  garden  are  of  course  fixed  by  the  house  on  the  one 
side  and  on  the  opposite  side  by  the  property  line;  and  while  the  continuation  of 
the  lines  of  the  front  and  back  faces  of  the  house  to  the  side  boundary  are  usually 
accepted  as  the  other  limits  of  this  area,  these  lines  may  be  moved  forward  or 
backward,  to  enlarge  or  reduce  the  area,  so  long  as  they  are  kept  parallel  with  the 
lines  of  the  house.  In  most  small  properties,  the  lot  lines  are  rectilinear,  and  the 
house  is  parallel  with  the  street  lines  if  not  also  parallel  with  all  the  lot  lines. 
In  this  small  sideyard,  the  space  is  too  small  to  permit  of  any  angularity  of  form 
which  is  neither  determined  nor  controlled  by  the  lines  of  the  house  or  of  the 
lot.  The  close  relation  of  the  side-yard  garden  to  the  house  should  limit  its 
form,  or  outline,  to  parallelism  with  the  house.  It  will  accordingly  be  necessary 
to  plan  the  outlines  of  this  area  on  these  lines,  if  the  space  available  is  to  be  used 
most  economically,  and  if,  also,  the  best  appearance  is  to  be  assured.  Curvilinear 
outlines  for  such  small  gardens  are  not  practical,  as  the  space  is  not  sufficiently 
large  to  allow  for  a  variety  of  curves,  unless  the  scale  adopted  is  small  to  the 
degree  of  pettiness.  Within  this  area,  some  degree  of  conventionality  is  most 
fitting,  and  any  departure  from  conventionality  is  likely  to  result  in  a  waste  of 


12 

space,  and  is  sure  to  detract  from  the  appearance  of  the  garden.  A  sufficiently 
large  private  lawn  may  be  accorded  some  degree  of  informality,  and,  in  fact, 
this  is  much  to  be  desired.  But  a  garden  or  a  courtyard  in  close  relation  to  the 
house  should  partake  of  the  character  of  the  house.  It  is  to  be  used  as  a  room, 
and  it  is  therefore  eminently  reasonable  to  plan  it  as  an  outdoor  room. 

As  has  been  already  stated,  probably  the  simplest  plan  for  this  garden  is  a 
rectangular  area  with  a  high  enclosure,  with  unbroken  turf  or  a  pavement  and, 
decorated  only  with  such  furniture  as  may  be  necessary.  If  further  decoration 
is  desired,  some  one  thing  should  be  featured.  Walls  may  be  decorated  by  de- 
signs laid  in  the  masonry;  lattices  may  be  plain  and  draped  with  vines,  or  they 
may  be  more  elaborate  and  have  vines  over  them;  hedges  may  have  recesses  cut 
into  them  for  flowering  plants;  or  again,  walls  or  lattices  may  be  made  garden- 
like  with  flowering  vines;  but  whatever  the  scheme  of  decoration  adopted,  a 
single  one  should  be  sufficient.  If  a  flower  border  is  to  be  the  decorative  feature, 
the  walls  of  the  enclosure  should  be  planned  as  a  neutral  background.  If 
an  arbor  or  a  small  summer  house,  however  simple,  is  to  be  included,  the  design  of 
this  architectural  element  should  be  so  exceedingly  refined  in  general  proportions 
and  in  detail  that  it  may  be  an  all-sufficient  decoration.  If  there  must  be  a 
combination  of  decorative  features,  some  one  feature  should  predominate,  and 
the  garden  should  not  be  elaborated  beyond  the  degree  suitable  to  the  house  and, 
to  the  remainder  of  the  property.  For  small  properties,  simplicity  is  best;  and 
it  should  be  remembered,  further,  that  only  simplicity  is  consistent  with  dignity 
and  is  expressive  of  refinement.  Simplicity  is  also  quite  suitable  for  the  more 
elaborate  homes. 

In  the  case  of  very  small  side  yards  (10  x  20  to  15  x  25  ft.  or  there  abouts),  it 
is  best  to  leave  the  main  ground  space  unbroken.  As  space  in  the  corners  is  of 
the  least  importance,  it  is  in  this  quarter  that  one  may  safely  introduce  tubbed 
plants,  or  corner  beds  of  flowers,  or  the  like.  Hence,  as  areas  become  larger, 
the  ground  spaces  that  may  be  taken  from  the  pavement  or  the  lawn  of  larger 
areas  are,  in  the  order  of  their  importance,  first  the  corners,  then  a  strip  all  along 
one  side,  and  finally  strips  along  two,  three,  or  even  all  of  the  sides.  If  the  entire 
open  space  is  concentrated  in  but  one  area,  it  appears  larger;  and  one  should 
plan  to  have  the  greater  part  of  this  space  open  for  tables  and  chairs  or  for  walk- 
ing about.  The  garden  should  be  decidedly  ample  before  any  flower  beds  are 
introduced  into  its  center.  If  the  area  is  too  large  to  look  well  with  its  entire 
surface  paved,  although  some  dry  and  smooth  footing  is  desired,  the  problem 
may  be  satisfactorily  solved  by  a  pattern  of  grass  and  paving.  This  both  fulfills 
the  practical  requirements  of  good  walking,  and  affords  the  pleasing  appearance  of 
fine,  even,  turf,  without  in  anyway  detracting  from  the  sense  of  openness  and 
spaciousness.  It  is  thus  possible,  with  a  rather  large  area,  to  obtain  a  very 
simple  but  dignified  expression.  A  garden  may  be  sufficiently  large  to  permit 
an  arrangement  of  border  flower  beds,  parallel  walks,  and  a  center  bed,  but  it  may 
not  be  sufficiently  large  for  the  subdivision  of  the  center  bed  by  intersecting 
walks.  But  in  order  to  decide  on  any  of  the  above  schemes,  it  is  first  neces- 
sary to  know  something  of  the  dimensions  practical  for  walks,  terraces,  flowerbeds, 
and  the  like. 

Flower  beds  that  are  planned  for  annuals  may  be  made  very  much  narrower 
than  those  planned  for  perennial  flowers.  There  are  many  annual  garden  flowers 
that  are  small  and  that  remain  about  the  same  size  all  summer.  From  annuals  of 


13 

the  desired  colors  small  sizes  may  be  selected,  and,  as  they  are  apt  to  continue  in 
bloom  all  summer,  it  is  not  necessary  to  arrange  the  different  kinds  of  plants  in 
tiers  or  to  provide  for  many  different  varieties  in  order  to  obtain  continuous  bloom. 
Most  herbaceous  perennials,  however,  are  in  flower  for  but  a  part  of  the  growing 
season;  their  roots  are  larger,  and  a  variety  must  be  used  in  order  to  continue 
their  floral  effect.  Therefore,  a  border  two  or  three  feet  wide,  which  may  be  made 
to  look  very  well  in  annuals,  is  quite  too  narrow  if  herbaceous  perennials  are  used. 
In  order  to  maintain  a  continually  good  appearance  from  early  spring  until  frost, 
borders  of  herbaceous  perennials  should  be  not  less  that  eight  feet  wide,  and  great- 
er widths,  up  to  twelve  feet,  are  far  better. 

The  colors  of  most  of  the  perennial  garden  flowers  are  less  garish  than  those  of 
annuals,  and  unless  one  has  a  finely  developed  sense  of  color,  he  is  safer  in  dealing 
only  with  the  herbaceous  perennials.  All  colors  look  better  with  a  background  of 
a  fine-textured,  dark  green  hedge,  and  with  such  a  background  a  bright  color  is 
very  cheerful,  and  combinations  of  bright  colors,  if  cleverly  arranged,  may  be 
very  effective.  A  large  proportion  of  white  flowers  with  a  small  proportion  of 
flowers  of  one  other  color  is  usually  a  safe  and  pleasing  combination.  In  small 
city  gardens  sometimes  only  annuals  will  thrive,  and  furthermore,  in  many  of 
these,  but  little  space  is  available  for  flowers.  Hence,  in  such  cases,  it  is  advisable 
for  one  to  plan  to  use  annuals  and  to  give  his  problem  the  careful  study  necessary. 
In  preparing  plans  for  the  incorporation  of  flower  beds  in  small  gardens  and  court- 
yards, one  should  decide  on  the  kind  of  flowers  best  suited  to  his  scheme,  and 
should  carefully  plan  the  dimensions  of  the  flower  areas  accordingly. 

The  space  allowed  for  a  table  and  chairs  out-of-doors  should  not  be  smaller 
than  is  found  practical  inside  the  house,  and  indeed,  out-of-doors  this  area  should 
be  somewhat  larger.  As  its  use  is  to  be  primarily  that  of  an  outdoor  room,  the 
arrangement  of  the  tables,  the  chairs,  and  the  settees  therein  is  of  first  importance. 
In  the  planning  of  these  outdoor  sitting  rooms,  as  well  as  in  that  of  porches, 
terraces,  and  small  gardens,  one  should  arrange  ample  passageways  from  the  house 
to  the  lawns  and  about  the  areas  themselves,  so  that  it  may  be  possible  to  stroll 
about  the  garden  without  interrupting  or  annoying  a  seated  group.  For  ex- 
ample, doors  from  the  house  to  the  center  of  a  terrace  will  necessarily  lead 
across  the  terrace  in  such  a  manner  as  to  cut  it  in  two,  thus  necessitating  the 
arrangement  of  the  chairs  in  two  groups.  Doors  from  the  house  to  a  small  garden, 
whether  opening  directly  into  the  garden  or  passing  across  a  porch  or  a  terrace,  are 
therefore  more  out  of  the  way  if  to  one  side  of  the  center.  By  this  arrangement, 
the  areas  are  cut  unequally;  the  smaller  area  is  then  allotted  as  a  place  in  which 
to  walk  about,  while  the  usefulness  of  the  larger  area,  for  which  the  private 
garden  is  primarily  designed,  is  unimpaired.  The  widths  of  walks  and  of  steps 
should  not  ordinarily  be  less  than  four  feet.  Moreover,  as  these  features  are  a 
part  of  the  living  rooms  and  are  recreational  areas  of  the  home,  they  should  be 
made  to  appear  as  generous  as  possible.  Even  a  small  garden  is  improved  by 
ample  dimensions  in  these  details.  Between  beds  of  low-growing  flowers  walks 
will  appear  wider  than  those  of  the  same  width  passing  between  tall-growing 
flowers.  However,  in  most  cases  it  is  highly  desirable  to  make  walks  wider 
than  four  feet,  and  even  an  additional  six  inches  will  be  effective,  though 
widths  of  five  and  six  feet  should  be  employed  wherever  possible.  Generous 
dimensions  in  these  details  give  to  small  gardens  a  style  and  a  character  which  is 


14 

much  to  be  desired.  Many  small  walks  do  not  make  a  small  garden  appear  larger, 
but  rather  tend  to  make  the  design  seem  petty. 

Lots  with  a  frontage  of  from  100  to  150  feet  should  have,  on  the  garden  side, 
from  40  to  80  feet  between  the  house  and  the  side  boundary;  and,  while  it  is  highly 
desirable  to  allow  an  ample  width  for  a  boundary  screen  of  trees,  inasmuch  space 
as  this  there  is  opportunity  for  more  than  a  mere  courtyard  garden.  However,  if  a 
larger  garden  is  not  desired,  more  area  may  well  be  devoted  to  heavier  screen 
planting  along  the  boundary,  or  the  garden  need  not  be  made  the  full  width  of  the 
house  and  the  additional  area  may  be  thrown  into  the  front  or,  preferably,  the  rear. 
It  must  be  admitted  that  small  gardens  have  a  charm  peculiarly  their  own,  and  if 
one  does  not  want  the  care  of  an  extensive  garden,  the  very  small,  roomlike 
enclosure  satisfies  all  practical  needs  with  respect  to  this  feature.  In  most  cases, 
greater  space  should  not  receive  more  elaborate  planning;  rather,  this  is  the 
opportunity  for  the  use  of  ample  dimensions  in  simple  schemes.  A  large  space 
divided  by  many  narrow  walks  and  small  flower  beds,  produces  the  effect  of  several 
small  gardens  rather  than  of  one  large  one. 

However  large  a  side  yard  may  be,  this  space  is  usually  the  best  location  for  a 
garden,  as  it  is  smaller  than  the  back  yard,  is  not  apt  to  have  an  interesting  dis- 
tant view  and  therefore  needs  barriers  along  the  side  and  the  front,  whatever  may 
be  the  plan  for  the  yard;  and,  finally,  regardless  of  its  extent,  this  area  is  still  most 
closely  related  to  the  living  rooms  of  the  house.  While  the  simplest  scheme  may 
appear  to  be  that  of  planning  the  side  and  back  yards  as  one  area,  it  is  not  difficult 
to  plan  to  separate,  either  wholly  or  partially,  the  side  yard  from  the  rear,  and 
to  plan  this  in  such  a  manner  as  to  require  no  more  upkeep  than  if  this  garden  area 
were  merely  a  part  of  the  lawn.  If  a  lawn  is  of  necessity  small,  it  is  more  likely  to  be 
used  as  a  garden;  but,  as  a  feature  in  itself,  a  lawn  is  more  successful  if  quite 
ample.  It  should  be  realized,  however,  that  both  the  lawn  and  the  garden  each 
have  their  specific  uses,  and  that  either  feature  alone,  even  at  its  best,  cannot 
entirely  replace  the  other.  If  flower  gardens  are  wanted,  they  should  be  carefully 
planned  in  order  not  to  require  more  care  than  can  be  given  or  procured  for  them, 
as  an  unkempt  garden  adjoining  a  house  is  most  unsightly. 

While  some  general  suggestions  for  the  planning  of  flower  gardens  for  larger 
areas  have  been  offered  here,  the  great  latitude  of  this  subject  makes  discussion 
difficult  beyond  what  has  already  been  said.  For  a  situation  so  close  to  the  house 
as  is  the  private  garden,  it  would  perhaps  be  wise  to  start  with  a  bit  of  expert  advice. 
However,  there  is  a  great  deal  of  good  to  be  gained  from  honest,  independent 
efforts  and  even  from  mistakes,  and,  while  one  may  waste  some  money  and  time  in 
making  changes,  there  is  no  reason  why  he  should  not  try  to  plan  his  own  garden, 
provided  he  has  first  conceived  it  as  a  part  of  the  plan  for  his  whole  property. 
One  should  begin  by  planning  the  place  as  a  whole;  then  he  should  plan  his  garden 
as  a  whole,  with  perhaps  a  few  of  its  details  in  mind.  But  under  no  circum- 
stances should  he  begin  by  planning  floral  combinations.  Other  gardens  should 
not  be  copied,  either  in  whole  or  in  part,  as  one's  own  garden  will  be  interesting 
only  as  it  is  some  logical  evolution  of  his  particular  conditions.  To  see  other 
interesting  gardens  is  helpful  and  does  stimulate  one's  ideas,  but  ideas  are  original, 
at  least  in  their  detailed  application.  One  should  endeavor  to  plan  a  garden 
that  is  suited  to  his  house,  and  he  should  always  remember  that  there  is  safety  in 
simple  plans.  If  amateur  gardening  will  develop  better  taste,  the  "trained  eye" 
can  well  afford  to  pardon  some  mistakes.  Moreover,  even  the  "trained  eye" 


15 

has  itself  made  some  mistakes,  and  has  also  found  some  pleasant  surprises  in  the 
gardens  of  amateurs. 

As  a  garden  in  the  side  yard  may  function  as  a  barrier  between  the  front  and  the 
rear  yards,  so  also  may  any  long  gardenlike  feature  serve  between  the  rear  lawn 
and  the  area  devoted  to  service.  If  a  gardenlike  feature  is  used,  it  should  be  one 
that  requires  little  or  no  more  width  than  a  border  planting,  lest  the  area  of  the 
lawn  should  thereby  be  unfortunately  reduced.  A  long  straight  walk  between 
shrubs  and  trees,  or  beneath  them  after  they  have  grown  taller,  is  interesting.  A 
collection  of  such  shrubs  as  lilacs  may  well  be  used  to  border  such  a  walk,  and,  in 
other  cases,  tall-growing  shrubs  may  be  trained  to  form  a  covered  arch,  thus 
affording  a  shaded  approach  to  the  more  distant  parts  of  the  yard  and  at  the  same 
time  being  in  itself  an  interesting  feature.  Grass  walks  with  flower  borders  on 
one  side  are  attractive,  but  the  care  of  so  many  flowers  is  a  factor  to  be  considered, 
and  especially  if  there  is,  in  addition,  another  place  for  flowers  in  the  garden. 
If  the  yard  is  unusually  deep,  the  garden  may  be  located  far  in  the  rear  with 
a  long,  shaded  walk  leading  thither. 

A  garden  placed  so  far  from  the  house  should  be  directly  connected  with  the 
house  by  some  conventional  passageway,  or  perhaps  by  a  less  formal  walk, 
according  to  the  style  of  the  garden,  such  as  a  straight  walk.  A  distant  garden 
need  not  be  so  formal  as  a  garden  immediately  ad  joining  the  living  room.  In  fact, 
in  so  remote  a  situation  one  is  freer  to  experiment  with  plants  and  with  effects 
to  be  obtained  by  plants,  and  may  even  try  different  designs.  If  the  setting  is 
suitable  for  a  garden  of  native  plants  or  for  plants  growing  in  or  about  water,  even 
naturalistic  effects  may  be  attempted;  and,  while  time  and  effort  may  be  required 
to  produce  a  naturalistic  setting,  in  a  sufficiently  large  space  it  may  prove  both 
appropriate  and  pleasing.  Sometimes  ugly  buildings  on  adjoining  lots  necessitate 
heavy  planting  along  the  boundaries,  and  within  these  it  is  occasionally  possible 
to  develop  woodland  effects  or  naturalistic  gardens.  When  thus  they  serve  a . 
double  purpose,  one  is  less  inclined  to  begrudge  the  space  occupied  by  heavy  bor- 
ders. It  is  highly  desirable  to  make  the  most  of  small  yards,  and  if  any  feature  can 
be  made  to  perform  more  than  one  service  the  interest  obtainable  within  the  same 
space  may  be  increased.  All  this  is  but  a  part  of  careful  and  clever  planning. 
Walks,  partly  hidden  and  partly  in  the  open,  that  lead  one  about  the  confines  of  a 
yard  add  considerably  to  the  interest  of  a  pleasure  ground.  They  afford  a  certain 
intricacy  and  variety  which  contribute  considerably  to  the  apparent  size  of  an 
area.  A  winding  path,  which  leads  deviously  from  the  house  to  outlying  garden 
spots,  summer  houses,  or  arbors,  displaying  the  yard  from  different  points  of 
view,  may  succeed  in  transforming  a  small  yard  into  one  apparently  as  large  as  that 
of  an  ample  suburban  home,  and  may  also  afford  equal  privacy  and  retirement. 

To  appear  at  its  best,  a  lawn  should  produce  the  effect  of  amplitude.  Further- 
more an  expression  of  informality  is  usually  more  consistent  and  pleasing.  The  lawn 
area  of  many  yards,  even  after  the  most  economical  planning,  will  be  found  none  too 
large,  and  further  care  will  be  necessary  in  order  to  obtain  the  greatest  amplitude 
and  the  best  general  effect.  Curvilinear  outlines  for  borders  should  have  a  logical 
reason  for  their  existence.  The  entire  lawn  should  have  a  pleasing  form,  and  its 
outlines  should  bear  some  relation  to  the  adjoining  features  and  subdivisions  of  the 
yard.  The  border  curves  should  not  be  petty  in  scale,  nor  should  the  recesses  along 
the  boundary  be  so  small  as  to  be  unfortunately  narrowed  or  entirely  closed  when 
the  growing  plants  reach  maturity.  Usually  it  is  best  to  allow  the  borders  greater 


16 

width  at  the  corners  of  the  lawn  than  along  the  sides,  thereby  obtaining  a  clear 
but  somewhat  rounded  space  of  turf.  A  lawn  appears  larger  and  gives  the  effect 
of  greater  spaciousness  if  its  area  is  wide  on  the  rectilinear  axes  rather  than  on  the 
diagonals.  Deep  recesses  are  interesting  if  there  is  sufficient  space  to  permit  their 
use;  and  even  outstanding  specimen  shrubs  or  trees  may  be  planted  effectively  in 
these  places,  where  they  are  advantageously  displayed  against  the  background  of 
the  border.  But  in  any  lawn,  as  in  any  garden,  the  first  thought  should  be  for  the 
necessary  open  space,  and  scenery  consistent  only  with  great  meadows  cannot  be 
reproduced  in  small  back  yards. 

In  planning  the  borders  of  the  lawn,  one  should  realize  in  the  beginning  that  his 
object  is  not  the  planting  of  bushes  that  are  interesting  in  themselves,  but  of  such 
bushes  as  will  make  an  appropriate  background  for  the  lawn.  Many  small  lawns 
would  be  far  more  pleasing  if  their  borders  consisted  only  of  free-growing,  tumbling 
masses  of  greenery,  wherein  the  various  kinds  of  plants  are  practically  indistin- 
guishable. Flowering  effects  are  by  no  means  undesirable  in  lawn  borders,  but 
too  great  a  variety  is  sure  to  spoil  the  total  effect.  A  limited  variety  of  flowers 
is,  in  most  cases,  to  be  desired,  especially  as  a  profusion  of  flowers  is  expected  in 
spring  and  early  summer,  but  a  variety  of  foliage  is  unfortunate.  The  indis- 
criminate use  of  the  so-called  "foliage  plants,"  whose  leaves  may  be  yel- 
low, blue,  purple,  or  any  unusual  green  is  unpardonably  bad  taste.  As  a  rule, 
the  peculiar  quality  of  color  in  these  foliage  plants  is  in  itself  not  good,  and  com- 
binations of  them  are  even  worse.  The  Creator  furnished  every  plant  with 
foliage  of  that  tone  of  green  best  suited  to  set  off  the  color  of  its  flower.  Most 
native  plants  have  leaves  of  a  desirable  green,  but  of  the  shrubs  and  trees  available 
for  such  planting,  only  dark  greens,  so  far  as  possible,  should  be  selected.  More- 
over, plants  with  small-sized  leaves  are  preferable  to  those  of  coarse  foliage.  If 
one  is  fond  of  flowers,  of  their  fruit,  or  of  the  general  aspect  of  any  particular 
plant,  whether  at  all  seasons  or  at  any  particular  season^  he  should  recognize 
that  showy  plants  can  be  seen  to  best  advantage  only  when  they  have  a  suitable 
background.  Most,  if  not  all,  of  the  border  plants  should  have  good  foliage,  and 
should  be  naturally  densely  branching.  A  background  of  good  foliage  is  most 
needed  when  many  of  the  plants  are  in  flower.  When  only  occasional  shrubs  are 
in  flower  or  showy  with  berries,  a  predominating  mass  of  green  all  about  them 
makes  their  color  appear  far  more  brilliant. 

If  a  surrounding  plantation  is  composed  for  the  most  part  of  neutral  tones,  then 
color,  pointed  forms,  evergreens,  or  other  exceptions  to  this  neutral  background 
are  accentuated.  It  is  desirable  to  have  these  accentuated  features  at  points  in  the 
border  that  are  the  termini  of  the  longest  views  or  of  views  of  special  importance. 
But  if  the  border  is  composed  for  the  most  part  of  diverse  colors  or  of  variously 
pointed  forms,  it  is  not  a  good  background,  as  it  is  restless  rather  than  restful, 
and  it  affords  no  possibility  of  further  accent  where  accent  is  needed.  Thus,  in 
planning  his  lawn,  one  must  remember  that  it  should  be  spacious ;  that  its  outline 
should  express  a  proper  relation  to  the  adjoining  features,  as  well  as  being  inter- 
esting in  itself ;  that  it  should  have  an  effective  barrier  of  vegetation,  so  selected  and 
so  arranged  as  to  be  for  the  most  part  of  neutral  greens ;  and  that  pi  ants  of  special 
interest  should  be  carefully  placed  with  respect  to  the  design  of  the  entire  yard. 
Informal  scenery  needs  as  careful  planning  as  do  formal  effects.  The  outlooks 
from  the  house  to  the  lawn  and  from  the  garden  to  the  lawn,  as  well  as  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  walks  about  the  entire  yard  and  all  other  general  relationships  of  the 


17 

whole  property  to  the  lawn,  should  determine  its  general  scheme.  With  such  a 
general  plan  for  a  beginning,  one  may  proceed  to  arrange  the  details  of  the  lawn 
and  of  its  border  planting.  Haphazard  arrangements  of  plants,  scattered  groups 
of  various  color  schemes,  and  a  diversity  of  specimen  plants  all  make  for  confusion 
as  seen  from  a  distance.  The  entire  effect  always  should  be  a  first  thought. 
Pretty,  or  even  striking  scenes,  if  well  placed,  fit  in  as  appropriate  parts  of  the 
whole  plan,  and  are  interesting  in  themselves  as  well. 

The  service  yard  should  be  carefully  planned  in  order  to  reduce  the  space 
allotted  to  it  and  at  the  same  time  to  insure  its  convenience  and  neatness. 
The  minimum  space  consistent  with  convenience  will  make  for  the  easiest  use  of 
this  yard.  The  service  yard  must  necessarily  lie  somewhat  in  view  of  the  house, 
and  for  this  reason  it  should  be  so  planned  as  to  encourage  neatness.  .  All  space 
that  is  not  needed  in  this  area  should  be  combined  with  the  rear  lawn.  Further, 
it  is  important  to  restrict  the  service  area  to  that  part  of  the  yard  nearest  the 
kitchen,  and  to  arrange  its  outline  parallel  to  the  boundary  of  that  side.  A 
service  yard  which  projects  in  the  direction  of  the  lawn  cuts  off  the  house  view  of 
that  part  of  the  lawn  lying  beyond  it.  It  may  be  possible  to  use  to  advantage  the 
space  thus  cut  off  from  the  view  of  the  house,  but  it  is  best  to  so  define  the  outlines  of 
the  service  area,  and  to  so  locate  it,  that  the  space  left  for  the  lawn  remains  in  a 
single  area  and  one  of  regular  outline.  Thus  in  most  cases  it  is  best  if  the  service 
yard  can  be  planned  to  occupy  a  space  against  the  service  side  of  the  house;  if 
it  can  continue  from  the  house  to  the  rear  boundary;  and  if  it  can  be  of  sufficient 
width  to  allow  dimensions  practical  for  buildings,  turncourts,  and  other  necessary 
service-yard  features. 

While  a  garage  is  usually  the  most  important  single  feature  to  be  accomodated 
in  the  service  area,  other  possible  considerations  are  a  turncourt,  a  laundry  yard, 
a  vegetable  garden,  a  cut-flower  garden,  cold-frames,  a  chicken-house  and  runs, 
a  compost  pit,  and  access  to  the  kitchen  door,  the  coal  bins,  the  cellar  entrance, 
the  ice  door,  and  the  like.  While  for  most  of  these  features,  the  minimum  di- 
mensions are  more  or  less  fixed,  in  some  instances  the  same  space  may  be  made  to 
serve  more  than  one  purpose.  Rectilinear  outlines  are  the  most  practical,  for  an 
area  of  regular  form  will  subdivide  most  easily  and  most  economically.  While  a 
garage  facing  the  street  and  at  the  end  of  a  straight  driveway  is  apt  to  display  a 
mussy  interior  when  the  doors  are  left  open,  this  arrangement  is  the  most  econom- 
ical of  space  and  is  the  only  scheme  possible  in  small  areas.  A  garage  so  built  as 
to  be  apparently  part  of  the  house  although  actually  quite  disconnected  from  it, 
looks  far  better  than  a  distinctly  separate  structure.  B  ut  unless  the  lot  is  very  wide, 
the  garage  should  open  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  of  a  separate  building, — 'that  is, 
facing  the  street.  The  open-door  difficulty  is  not  a  fundamental  consideration,  as  it 
may  be  remedied  with  but  a  little  trouble;  very  likely  some  one  will  soon  invent  a 
device  for  opening  and  closing  these  doors  more  easily.  The  garage  may  be  placed 
directly  at  the  side  of  the  house  if  one  is  willing  to  back  in  or  out;  and  even  in  the 
case  of  houses  near  the  street,  it  may  be  better  to  forego  a  turncourt  in  the  rear  and 
to  place  a  garage  no  farther  from  the  rear  face  of  the  house  than  will  allow  for 
necessary  space  and  light  about  the  kitchen.  Of  course,  the  shorter  the  garage 
drive,  the  less  space  it  will  occupy  and  the  less  will  be  the  cost  of  the  construction 
and  maintenance  of  the  drive.  A  turntable  within  the  garage,  although  expen- 
sive, may  be  cheaper  than  the  space  required  for  a  turncourt  and  the  cost  of 
paving  it.  Unless  an  ample  area  may  reasonably  be  allowed  for  the  service  yard, 


18 

and  in  particular  for  the  turncourt,  it  is  better  to  place  the  garage  in  the  closest 
possible  relation  to  a  house  and  to  abandon  all  consideration  of  a  turncourt. 

An  automobile  turncourt  may  consist  of  a  complete  turn,  or  of  a  place  for  back- 
ing around  a  quarter  circle  and  turning  ahead  for  another  quarter  of  a  circle, 
a  turn  which  may  be  called,  from  its  shape,  a  "T."  The  T  has  the  advantage  of 
requiring  only  half  the  space  that  the  complete  turn  demands.  The  T  laid  out  for 
a  large  car  will  sometimes  allow  a  small  one  to  turn  completely.  The  dimensions 
required  for  turning  is  known  for  most  automobiles, and  anyone  can  easily  determine 
that  of  his  own  car.  The  garage  may  be  located  just  far  enough  back  from  the 
house  to  allow  for  a  T  between  itself  and  the  house,  and  the  pavement  required 
at  the  back  door  may  thus  serve  simultaneously  for  a  walk  and  a  drive.  A  com- 
plete turn  will  ordinarily  require  more  space  than  its  convenience  is  worth, although 
its  center  may  at  times  be  used  as  a  drying  area.  Complete  turns  require  a  diameter 
from  fifty  to  sixty  feet  at  the  least,  and  are  rarely  economical  on  lots  of  less 
than  two  hundred  feet  frontage.  Unless  a  complete  turn  can  be  turfed  in  the 
center  and  a  part  of  the  area  be  made  to  serve  some  additional  purpose,  such  a 
plan  is  not  advisable.  In  the  positions  just  recommended  for  the  garage,  it 
should  be  kept  near  the  side  boundary.  Placing  the  garage  as  close  to  the  house 
as  is  practical  also  tends  to  conserve  the  area  behind  it,  which  will  probably  be 
assigned  to  work  yards,  vegetables,  cut-flower  gardens,  compost  pits,  and  the 
like.  In  case  this  space  is  not  needed  for  work  yards,  it  may  be  a  useful  enclosure 
for  small  children,  where  they  can  play  with  less  restraint  than  on  a  lawn  and 
can  have  their  toys,  sand-boxes  and  various  playground  apparatus.  The  loca- 
tion of  the  garage  and  of  the  driveway  leading  to  it  is  the  largest  factor  in  the  plan- 
ning of  the  service  yard,  and  is  therefore  necessarily  the  first  thing  to  be  considered. 
The  least  possible  area  should  be  used,  however,  and  the  space  still  unoccupied 
should  be  carefully  allotted  to  the  other  features  that  must  be  accomodated. 

Suggestions  for  the  barriers  for  the  service  yard  may  be  found  in  the  discussion 
of  garden  and  lawn-  barriers.  Limited  space  may  suggest  walls,  or  lattices,  or 
wire  fences  with  vines,  according  to  what  seems  fitting  for  the  house  and  yard  in 
question.  Free-growing  borders,  of  course,  are  practical  only  when  there  is  con- 
siderable space.  But  here,  as  elsewhere,  one  should  think  primarily  of  such  factors 
as  space,  what  will  look  best  with  the  rest  of  his  yard,  and  what  he  can  afford  to 
build  and  maintain.  The  barrier  between  the  service  yard  and  the  lawn  may  be  a 
wall,  a  lattice,  or  a  fence,  with  or  without  vines  over  it;  or  it  may  be  a  plantation 
of  shrubs  and  trees,  trimmed  hedge  fashion  on  the  garage  side  and  allowed  to  grow 
freely  on  the  lawn  side.  It  is  possible  to  use  an  arbor  to  separate  these  areas  and 
at  the  same  time  to  furnish  as  a  walk  to  the  rear.  A  pleached  arbor,  made  by  train- 
ing shrubs  or  trees  in  the  form  of  an  arbor,  is  an  interesting  feature  in  itself,  and 
would  also  serve  as  a  covered  walk;  and,  moreover,  from  the  outside  it  could -be 
made  to  resemble  a  border  plantation.  In  a  small  vegetable  garden,  one  may  plan 
to  cultivate  close  up  to  the  walls.  But  it  is  neither  possible  nor  practical  to  plan  to 
cultivate  close  to  hedges  or  vine-covered  fences,  for  the  roots  of  these  growing 
things  will  spread  into  the  garden  space,  and  there  will  also  be  a  strip  of  ground 
that  is  worn  by  walking  or  in  caring  for  the  hedge,  and  other  difficulties  will  arise. 
With  such  barriers  it  will  therefore  be  found  best  to  plan  a  walk  about  the  outside 
of  the  garden  plot,  as  with  such  an  arrangement  one  may  conveniently  cultivate 
close  up  to  the  line.  The  walk  is  a  needed  convenience,  and  the  area  for  culti- 
vation will  be  all  in  one  and  the  largest  possible.  Any  other  buildings  to  be 


19 

placed  in  this  area  should  be  included  in  the  garage  or  else  erected  along  the 
boundaries.  Unless  small  buildings  are  decorative  in  themselves,  as  might  be  the 
case  with  children's  play  houses,  they  are  apt  to  be  unsightly.  However  interest- 
ing they  may  be,  small  buildings  must  be  correlated  with  the  entire  plan  for  the 
yard  if  they  are  to  become  an  integral  part  of  its  scheme  and  look  well.  It  is 
possible  to  place  garages,  playhouses,  arbors,  and  like  structures  along  the  lines  of 
division  between  service  yards  and  lawns,  and  thus  they  may  serve  simultaneously 
as  boundaries,  and  as  decorative  and  useful  features.  Of  course,  all  coordina- 
tion of  the  parts  of  a  yard  plan  expresses  planning  and  forethought,  and  makes  the 
yard  appear  orderly,  useful,  and  interesting, — it  looks  well  because  it  is 
essentially  good. 

Considerable  interest  may  be  added  to  small  yards  by  the  judicious  use  of 
gateways,  lattices,  trellises,  arbors,  seats,  and  other  architectural  details.  It  is 
well  to  use  only  such  details  as  are  apparently  useful.  A  gateway  between  the 
garden  and  the  front  yard  is  a  part  of  the  barrier  between  the  public  and  the  private 
areas;  but  it  can  also  serve  as  a  decorative  feature  of  the  garden.  Necessary 
lattices  and  walls  may  likewise  be  made  decorative.  Seats  should  not  be  so 
placed  as  to  be  conspicuous  termini  of  views,  but  should  rather  be  situated  in  those 
parts  of  the  yard  or  gar  den  where  one  would  en  joy  sitting.  A  bird  house  or  a  bird 
bath  may  be  grouped  with  a  decorative  seat ;  but  whatever  the  situation  chosen  for 
them,  it  should  not  be  such  as  to  make  them  appear  as  an  afterthought.  All 
decorations  should  be  conceived  only  as  a  part  of  an  entire  plan.  The  designs  of 
such  decoration  should  be  refined,  carefully  proportioned,  and  of  suitable  motif;  fur- 
thermore, they  should  be  suited  to  the  house  and  yard  in  style,  in  material,  and  in 
workmanship.  Costly  decorative  objects,  or  imitations  of  them,  are  usually  in 
poor  taste;  and  such  decoration,  especially  if  unsuccessful,  makes  a  garden  appear 
ordinary.  The  results  are  displeasing  indeed.  So  far  as  possible,  wood  should  be 
used  about  the  garden,  although  iron  is  also  appropriate  for  gates  if  the  design  is 
very  simple. 

Water  features  are,  as  a  rule,  a  proper  decoration  only  for  more  elaborate  resi- 
dences. For  most  city  or  suburban  homes,  running  water  is  a  considerable  ex- 
pense, and  in  this  respect  alone  fountains  or  pools  are  costly.  Yet  to  have  foun- 
tains which  only  play  on  great  occasions  is  ridiculous.  A  fountain  necessitates 
constantly  running  water,  and,  in  fact,  fountains  become  interesting  only  when 
they  have  been  used  for  a  considerable  time  till  they  have  become  mossy. 
It  is  sometimes  possible  to  use  such  features  as  a  bird  bath  properly  and  with  pleas- 
ing effect,  but  in  very  simple  homes  one  had  better  resort  to  other  means  of  decor- 
ation. Much  the  same  may  be  said  concerning  the  use  of  sundials.  These  were 
formerly  a  useful  means  of  telling  the  time;  but  now-a-days  everyone  recognizes 
their  impracticability  for  all  but  elaborate  decorative  schemes.  It  is  impossible  to 
give  definite  advice,  or  to  make  definite  statements,  regarding  these  features,  as 
every  situation  is  necessarily  a  law  unto  itself.  A  good  plan  needs  little  or  no 
decoration,  and  if  one  restricts  the  decoration  of  his  yard  practically  to  useful 
architectual  details,  even  within  these  narrow  limits  he  must  use  great  judgment 
and  exercise  much  good  taste. 


LANDSCAPE  PLANNING 
FOR  SMALL  HOMES 


COPYRIGHT 
E.  GORTON  DAVIS 

DEPARTMENT  OF  LANDSCAPE  ARCHITECTURE 

COLLEGE  OF  ARCHITECTURE,  CORNELL  UNIVERSITY 

1922 


CHAPTER  V 

THE  ARRANGEMENT  OF  COTTAGE  GROUNDS 
IN  COUNTRY  OR  VILLAGE 

The  word  cottage  carries  with  it  many  associations, — appealing,  attractive, 
and  homelike.  Some  persons  will  recall  European  rather  than  American  ex- 
amples, and  even  those  who  have  not  travelled  abroad  have  been  familiar,  most 
likely,  since  the  days  of  their  childhood,  with  the  illustrations  in  Kate  Green- 
away's  books  and  with  other  similar  pictures  of  English  cottages  and  cottage 
gardens.  The  simplicity  and  homely  beauty  of  the  cottage  homes,  which  are  so 
common  in  England,  are  generally  known;  and,  in  fact,  among  the  village  homes 
of  all  the  countries  of  Europe,  there  are  many  examples  which  are  equally  attract- 
ive. Our  own  country  is  not  without  its  quaint  villages  and  charming  cottage 
homes;  and  occasionally  a  cottage  surrounded  by  its  old  garden  is  yet  to  be  found. 
These  old  villages  of  our  own  continent,  along  the  eastern  coast,  are  all  that  re- 
main today  of  our  colonial  village  life.  Many  of  these  old-time  buildings  are 
still  standing,  and  .the  yards  of  some  retain  their  original  old  fences;  but  the  gar- 
dens are  gone.  There  are  records  in  plenty  to  show  that  the  colonists  invariably 
brought  with  them  from  their  home  land,  seeds  and  the  roots  of  their  garden 
favorites.  Their  native  English  tradition  was  that  of  a  house  in  a  garden  setting. 
But  neglect  makes  short  work  of  a  garden,  and  only  such  enduring  things  as 
boxwood  remained.  Until  recently,  old  boxwood  hedges  and  trees  were  by  no 
means  uncommon  in  the  yards  of  old  villages  in  New  England,  New  Jersey, 
Delaware,  and  Maryland,  and  they  flourish  still  in  Virginia  and  in  the  South. 
Now-a-days  there  is  a  tremendous  demand  for  them  for  the  gardens  of  the  weal  thy. 
In  pre-Revolutionary  days,  without  doubt,  cottage  gardens  were  the  custom- 
ary settings  for  every  cottage  home,  just  as  the  dignified  avenues  of  approach, 
the  ample  courtyards,  and  the  gardens  were  an  invariable  part  of  every  colonial 
manor. 

Of  course  it  was  inevitable  that  this  phase  of  our  colonial  life,  its  home,  should 
have  to  pass,  along  with  the  life  itself.  The  century  following  the  Revolution 
was  a  period  of  constant  change  and  rapid  growth.  Established  trade  with 
Europe  was  disrupted,  and  consequently  many  lines  of  industry  depending  upon 
it  were  affected,  ports  were  closed,  and  whole  villages  were  abandoned.  But  on 
the  other  hand,  new  and  greater  opportunities  were  opened:  the  children  and  the 
grandchildren  of  the  early  colonists  turned  pioneer,  and  moved  westward,  to  pass 
through  a  similar  period  of  struggle  with  virgin  country  and  with  crude  con- 
ditions. The  colonial  life  of  America  was  from  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and 
fifty  years  old  at  the  time  of  the  Revolution,  and  in  that  time  it  was  not  a  new 
country,  but  merely  a  colonial  life  that  had  matured.  It  is,  perhaps,  little  to  be 
wondered  that  in  a  similarly  brief  period  of  time,  and  one,  moreover,  interrupted 
by  a  war  most  disasterous  to  the  country's  progress,  that  more  has  not  been 
accomplished  in  America  to  ward,  settled  living  conditions  and  toward  a  general 
desire  for  beauty  and  refinement  in  home  surroundings. 

It  is  unfortunate  that  an  appreciation  of  the  beauty  of  simple  and  homely 

3 


things  is  not  encouraged,  fostered,  or  preserved  among  the  peasantry  of  a  country, 
or  among  those  of  limited  means.  Such  appreciation,  it  would  seem,  would 
make  for  greater  contentment  and  thrift.  Rapid  advancement  and  increase  of 
income,  however,  appears  to  develop  a  taste  for  excitement  and  for  extravagance 
rather  than  for  betterment  of  living  conditions  and  for  general  thrift.  Of  course 
the  peasantry  of  today  in  this  country  is  not  the  peasantry  of  a  subsequent  genera- 
tion; and  home  is  not  regarded  as  home  in  the  real  sense  of  the  word,  but  merely 
as  a  temporary  residence,  not  only  by  the  laborer  but  by  a  large  majority  of  the 
American  population  as  well.  When,  in  an  individual  or  in  a  class,  a  genuine 
desire  for  beauty  develops,  art  will  result,  although  taste  must  first  be  cultivated 
and  standards  evolved.  Cottage  gardens  are  the  result  of  long-settled  con- 
ditions of  living,  of  a  desire  for  beauty,  and  of  a  love  of  home  and  of  plants  them- 
selves. These  gardens  were  not  purchased  with  money,  but  were  made  of  the 
materials  at  hand,  and,  in  this  respect,  are  therefore  genuine  and  popular  art. 

Some  villages  in  the  vicinity  of  large  cities  have  been  rediscovered  and  re- 
juvenated by  city  folk,  to  whom  village  life  is  attractive.  But  such  instances 
have  frequently  resulted  in  business  and  real  estate  booms,  in  the  building  of  cheap 
and  ugly  houses  and  the  like,  or  in  too  much  prosperity  of  an  ultra-fashionable 
kind ;  .and  any  of  these  will  destroy  the  simple  character  of  the  village.  One 
admires  the  city  folk  who  prefer  village  life,  and  wishes  that  many  old  villages, 
whose  nearness  to  cities  is  proving  their  destruction,  might  instead  be  so  settled; 
but  real  village  life  and  true  rural  prosperity  depend  upon  those  who  spend  their 
whole  lives  there.  If  this  country  is  ever  to  see  again  beautiful  cottage  homes 
made,  as  of  old,  by  country  folk,  it  will  be  only  by  a  slow  development  through  a 
period  of  years.  Nevertheless  the  evidence  of  renewed  interest  in  country  life 
and  the  desire  of  city  workers  for  simple  homes  in  the  country  should  be  en- 
couraged; and  surely  not  the  style  of  city  homes  but  rather  those  of  the  country 
and  of  the  village  should  dominate.  It  would  seem  that  the  early  American 
colonial  cottage  and  its  garden  might  well  be  the  inspiration  for  the  design  of 
simple  country  homes.  An  English  cottage  in  America  looks  like  a  stranger  in  a 
strange  land.  A  California  bungalo,  the  type  suggested  by  the  architecture  of  the 
old  Spanish  Missions,  is  adapted  to  that  climate  and  looks  well  only  in  the  West 
and  Southwest,  in  the  conditions  amid  which  it  was  born.  In  the  East,  certain 
types  of  building  were  produced  by,  or  were,  the  result  of,  several  factors,  such  as 
traditions  from  mother  countries,  building  materials  available,  climate,  and  other 
conditions  of  environment.  The  architecture  of  the  colonials  was  a  natural 
evolution.  Likewise  today  the  colonial  style  is  our  tradition.  We  need  not 
necessarily  try  to  reproduce  it,  and,  further,  it  is  logical  that  the  style  of  today 
should  be  adapted  to  present-day  conditions.  The  colonists  did  not  reproduce 
styles  of  their  native  countries,  although  they  began  with  them  as  a  point  of 
departure.  As  this  inspiration  grew,  the  colonists  created  a  new  style.  It 
should  be  noted,  however,  that  they  did  not  create  a  new  style  by  trying  to 
depart  from  their  tradition.  In  the  East  we  have  come  to  associate  the  styles 
prevalent  just  before  and  just  after  the  Revolution  with  village  and  with  country 
life,  and  it  is  felt  that  any  radical  departure  from  these  styles,  or  even  the  country 
version  of  them,  is  therefore  a  false  note  and  one  detrimental  to  success  in  making 
new  small  homes  in  the  country. 

But  what  is  a  cottage  garden?     The  simple  garden  of  the  cottager  has  always 


5 

made  a  special  appeal,  which  unquestionably  is  the  result  of  its  individuality,  of 
its  fitness,  and  of  its  spontaniety.  These  characteristics  are  common  to  almost 
all  cottage  gardens,  whether  old  or  new,  English  or  American,  conceived  by  their 
owners,'  or  built  according  to  the  dictates  of  the  conditions  and  of  the  materials 
at  hand,  without  regard  to  passing  styles  and  each  in  a  style  of  its  own  that 
changes  only  with  time  and  with  growth.  An  excellent  description  of  cottage 
gardening  is  to  be  found  in  Village  Homes  of  England,  by  Sidney  R.  Jones,  which  is 
quoted  as  follows: 

Cottage  gardening  is  a  subject  difficult  to  define  or  to  include  within 
certain  limits.  In  the  practice  of  it  English  villagers  have  always  ex- 
celled. Rural  occupations,  indeed,  have  ever  appealed  to  the  national 
mind,  and  whether  the  consideration  be  of  gardens  that  surround  man- 
sions, houses,  or  peasant's  dwelling,  the  same  evidence  of  devotion  to 
the  'purest  of  human  pleasures'  is  there.  In  the  best  of  our  village 
gardens  the  effects  appear  to  be  spontaneous  and  unstudied,  and  the 
operations  of  art  are  cunningly  concealed;  they  seem  to  have  grown 
together  without  the  aid  of  man.  Villagers  are  born  gardeners.  With 
skill  they  apply  and  adapt  their  knowledge  acquired  from  nature.  'The 
very  laborer,'  said  Washington  Irving,  'with  his  thatched  cottage  and 
narrow  strip  of  ground,  attends  to  their  embellishment.  The  trim 
hedge,  the  grass  plot  before  the  door,  the  little  flower  bed  bordered  with 
snug  box,  the  woodbine  trained  up  against  the  wall  and  hanging  its 
blossoms  about  the  lattice,  the  pot  of  flowers  in  the  window,  the  holly, 
providentially  planted  about  the  house  to  cheat  winter  of  its  dreariness 
and  to  throw  in  a  semblance  of  green  to  cheer  the  fireside:  all  these 
bespeak  the  influence  of  taste,  flowing  down  from  high  sources,  and  per- 
vading the  lowest  levels  of  the  public  mind.' 

Quoting  further  from   Mr.   Jones'   article  on   cottage  gardens,   apparently, 

An  intuitive  faculty  on  the  part  of  their  makers  gave  results  for  the 
repetition  of  which  it  is  impossible  to  lay  down  definite  laws.     The 
charm  of  many  such  cottage  gardens,  ......  .is  beyond  analysis, 

and  their  attractiveness  is  due  to  the  personal  influence  of  those  who  have 
cared  for  them;  villagers  felt  what  was  right  to  do,  and  ideas  came 
naturally  through  intimate  relation  with  the  soil.  That  is  as  it  should 
be:  gardens,  as  houses,  ought  to  reflect  the  personality  of  their  owners. 
The  vegetable  beds,  in  which  lay  the  real,  material  value  of  the  cottage 
gardens,  were  tended  as  carefully  as  the  plots  given  up  to  flowers.  Be- 
tween the  narrow  paths  would  be  rows  of  beans,  peas,  cabbages,  and 
roots,  with  here  and  there  an  old-fashioned  fruit  tree  and  bushes  of 
currants  and  gooseberries.  In  shady  places  rhubarb  flourished,  and 
nuts  were  in  the  boundary  hedge.  Near  the  house,  flowers  bloomed, 

and  their  fragrance  was  wafted  within The  entrance 

path  was  frequently  paved  with  the  handiest  material  the  locality 
afforded,  and  many  charming  effects  in  stone, brick,  and  cobbles  may 

be   seen Village   gardens,   too,   had  their   clipped   work 

in  yew  and  box,  and  much  of  it  can  still  be  seen The 

deep  green  of  these  trees  (and  hedges)  afford  excellent  backgrounds 
for  the  display  of  flowers.  Some  allege  that  yews  and  box  harbour 
insects  and  pests,  deprive  plants  growing  near  of  nutriment,  and  make 
the  successful  growing  of  flowers  in  close  proximity  an  impossibility. 
But  that  cannot  always  be  so,  for  flowers  in  such  positions  in  cottage 

gardens  flourish  amazingly Here  flowers  come  and  go  as 

the  seasons  pass, — snowdrops,  crocuses,  early  tulips,  and  violets.  With 
the  advancing  season  come  the  columbines,  pinks,  roses,  and  the  brave 
show  of  summer  blossoms,  and  autumn  days  are  rich  with  fragrance. 

. As  time  goes  by,  the  old  cottages  and  their  trim  gardens 

continue  to  add  beauty  to  the  countryside.     The  garden  gates,  as  in 


6 

days  of  long  ago,  open  on  to  narrow  paths  that  lead  to  those  ancient 
structures,  the  village  homes  of  England,  changeless  objects  amid  a 
changing  world. 

Cottage  homes  in  the  open  country  rather  than  in  villages  will  be  discussed 
first,  as  these  allow  greater  freedom  for  planning  and  are  thus  more  suitable  for 
study.  In  a  general  way,  the  scheme  of  arrangement  for  the  main  rooms  of  a 
house  and  for  the  principal  outdoor  areas  cannot  vary  greatly  in  small  homes,  as 
the  fundamental  principles  of  arrangement  necessarily  remain  the  same  insofar 
as  the  homes  are  used  similarly,  and  regardless  of  whether  they  are  in  the  city  or 
in  the  country.  If  they  are  used  differently,  or  if  physical  conditions  change 
radically,  as,  for  example,  the  climates  of  various  sections,  sometimes  do,  then 
plans  will  have  to  be  changed  accordingly  and  to  afford  the  requisite  convenience. 
Such  changes,  however,  will,  for  the  most  part,  deal  only  with  details.  Also, 
plans  should  aim  to  ameliorate  the  rigors  of  a  climate  while  at  the  same  time  allow- 
ing the  greatest  enjoyment  of  life  in  any  climate.  Good  planning  aims  to  make 
the  most  of  the  physical  conditions  of  any  situation,  as,  for  example,  the  planning 
for  space  was  found  very  important  in  the  arrangement  of  small  city  lots.  As 
city  lots  are  comparatively  limited  in  size  and  usually  narrower  than  is  desirable, 
they  are  always  more  difficult  to  plan  than  country  lots.  Plans  for  houses  should 
invariably  be  correlated  with  the  plans  for  the  land  which  is  adjacent  to  them, 
under  all  conditions  and  in  all  situations,  but  in  a  city  one  must  also  in  a  measure 
correlate  his  plans  and  make  them  conform  to  the  customs  of  the  street  and  even 
to  those  of  the  neighborhood,  and  must  as  well,  take  into  consideration  the  con- 
ditions on  adjoining  properties.  In  the  open  country,  the  nearest  houses  are 
usually  too  far  away  to  require  consideration.  For  a  certainty  one  has  greater 
liberty  in  planning  a  home  in  the  country;  nevertheless,  in  the  fundamentals  of 
planning  and  in  the  determination  of  the  relationships  between  the  more  import- 
ant elements  of  the  scheme,  he  will  find  many  helpful  suggestions  in  the  fore- 
going chapters. 

Undoubtedly  country  homes  afford  greater  liberty  for  planning,  and  further- 
more, there  is  assurance  of  a  greater  degree  of  success.  It  is  not  always  possible 
to  enclose  a  city  yard  sufficiently  to  hide  all  the  unsightly  objects  on  adjoining 
lots;  and  even  if  surrounding  homes  are  attractively  planned,  it  is  difficult  to 
achieve  more  than  a  limited  degree  of  privacy.  One  must  start  by  allowing 
space  for  high  and  dense  borders,  and  then  time  and  care  will  be  necessary  for 
these  to  reach  maturity  and  before  any  interesting  development  can  be  attained 
in  the  yard.  In  city  lots  one  starts  with  no  assets  but  rather  with  many  handi- 
caps, while  in  the  country  he  has  few  if  any  difficulties  to  overcome,  and  if  he 
has  chosen  his  site  carefully,  he  may  even  start  with  the  growth  of  years  already 
accomplished  and  with  existing  conditions  full  of  interest  and  suggestion  and 
only  awaiting  development. 

In  some  respects  one  finds,  in  the  open  country,  conditions  quite  the  opposite  of 
those  in  the  city,  and,  in  fact,  some  that  even  demand  a  reversal  of  some  of  the 
aforesaid  principles  of  planning.  In  contrast  with  the  closely  built-up  con- 
ditions in  cities,  the  surroundings  of  a  country  lot  are  open.  Even  old  woods, 
consisting  of  tall  trees  and  with  little  undergrowth,  such  as  those  that  have  been 
pastured,  appear  open.  In  fact,  if  a  lot  in  the  country  is  surrounded  by  fields, 
pastures,  or  old  woodlands,  these  conditions  seem  open  in  comparison  with  a 


city  environment.  This  openness  of  environment,  in  combination  with  the  isola- 
tion, and  even  loneliness,  of  the  country,  requires  a  more  densely  planted  or  at 
least  a  Jess  open  yard  than  is  desirable  in  the  city.  A  low  and  spreading  house 
quite  surrounded  by  gardens,  orchards,  and  like  growth,  and  with  tall  trees  over- 
hanging the  house,  all  unite  to  suggest  shelter  and  protection.  In  the  city  one 
plans  to  obtain  space  and  the  effect  of  roominess,  as  land,  and  especially  an  ample 
frontage,  is  at  a  premium;  but  with  a  reversal  of  these  conditions,  however 
interesting  may  be  the  broad  expanse  of  the  country,  it  is  still  more  interesting 
if  seen  from  a  snug  home.  A  gardenlike  setting  for  a  cottage  is  almost  essential 
for  its  best  appearance,  and  a  very  much  sheltered  setting  is  equally  essential  for 
either  a  homelike  atmosphere  or  a  garden  background. 

One  often  finds,  ifi  descriptions  of  country  homes,  the  expression  'the  snug 
cottage.'  The  attractiveness  of  the  cottage  in  a  garden  may  be  the  result  of 
several  factors:  a  suitable  type  of  house,  set  low  on  the  ground;  a  well-planned 
but  picturesque  grouping  of  all  buildings;  a  compact  and  convenient  arrange- 
ment of  all  elements,  without,  however,  the  effect  of  being  studied.  Likewise 
necessary  are  an  abundance  of  flowers,  a  well-stocked  kitchen-garden,  an  orchard, 
high  and  thick  hedges  about  the  boundaries;  and  from  without,  but  a  glimpse  of 
all  this  to  be  seen  through  a  simple  gateway.  The  cottager  of  long  ago  could  not 
afford  to  waste  his  land,  and  to  him  a  front  lawn  was  unknown.  If  his  cottage 
was  not  directly  on  the  road,  walls  or  hedges  enclosed  the  ground  between  the 
road  and  the  house,  and  this  area  became  a  garden  or  a  grass  plot.  But  what- 
ever may  be  the  best  plan  for  the  details  of  a  cottage  yard,  it  is  generally  safe  to 
say  that,  after  allowing  sufficient  space  for  high  and  dense  borders,  the  major 
part  of  the  area  should  be  devoted  to  gar&ens,  orchards,  shrubberies,  and  the 
like.  It  is  not  inconsistent  with  such  an  effect,  however,  to  allow  glimpses  of 
interesting  parts  of  the  surrounding  country  from  suitable  vantage  points. 

However  small  a  country  house,  it  is  not  apt  to  look  as  well  if  tall  and  narrow  as 
it  will  if  low  and  spreading  in  its  proportions.  It  is  possible  for  many  styles  of 
cottages  to  be  very  picturesque  and  attractive  in  themselves;  but  to  appear  well 
in  their  garden  setting  they  must  have  a  country  aspect,  and  also  must  be  set  low 
on  the  ground.  Rural  homes  especially  should  be  intimately  related  to  their 
surrounding  gardens,  and  therefore  the  first  floor  of  the  house  should  be  but  a 
step  above  the  garden  level.  Usually  it  is  best  to  keep  the  first-floor  level  low, 
and  also  to  plan  a  low  and  spreading  house.  The  style  of  the  house  is  an  im- 
portant factor  in  the  appearance  of  the  whole  property,  as  it  is  very  prominent. 
It  should  therefore  have  a  native  aspect,  express  the  amplitude  of  the  country 
without  appearing  too  elaborate,  and,  above  all,  the  house  should  seem  at  home 
in  its  garden. 

Apparently  there  are  no  factors  limiting  the  position  of  the  country  house  ex- 
cept those  of  good  planning  within  the  lot.  The  position  of  the  house  will,  of 
course,  determine  both  the  size  of  the  areas  on  its  several  sides  and  also  the  uses 
of  these  areas.  The  allotment  of  the  space  desired  and  the  convenience  of  the 
whole  plan  should  be  borne  in  mind  while  the  house  is  being  placed  and  its  first* 
floor  plan  determined.  However,  as  the  frontages  of  lots  in  the  country  are 
generally  more  ample  than  those  of  city  lots,  there  may  be  a  great  deal  of  latitude 
in  the  placing  of  the  house,  and,  in  fact,  in  the  planning  of  the  entire  lot.  Front- 
age on  country  roads,  and  even  in  villages,  is  not  so  expensive  as  in  cities,  and  if 


8 

lots  are  purchased  in  the  midst  of  farm  land,  the  farmer  usually  prefers  for  his 
convenience  in  farming  in  the  surrounding  fields,  to  sell  a  long  frontage  with  a 
shallow  depth,  rather  than  the  reverse.  For  a  certainty,  lots  of  ample  frontage 
are  more  desirable  than  those  that  are  narrow  and  deep,  for  they  are  better 
adapted  to  practical  and  attractive  development.  And,  after  all,  why  go  to  the 
country  and  still  live  on  a  narrow  lot?  If  for  a  cottage  home  a  lot  of  ample 
frontage  may  be  assumed,  then  with  this  greater  latitude  for  location,  the  de- 
sirability of  a  low-spreading  house,  will  be  evident. 

If  lots  are  chosen  along  or  near  good  roads,  for  reasons  of  accessibility,  high 
hedges  and  heavy  border  plantings  will  be  necessary  to  exclude  the  noise  and  the 
dust  incident  to  modern  traffic,  and  may  at  the  same  time  serve  to  relate  the  house 
less  to  the  road  and  more  to  the  grounds  within.  High  hedges  along  the  road- 
way, as  well  as  about  the  greater  part  of  the  boundaries,  will  contribute  mr.ch  to 
the  desired  character  of  the  cottage  home;  but  usually  one  need  not  hesitate  to 
place  his  house  where  he  prefers.  He  may  even  turn  it  endwise,  or  in  fact  at  any 
angle  to  the  road.  In  short,  there  does  not  appear  to  be  any  exterior  condition 
that  limits  or  in  any  way  particularly  affects  the  ground  plans  of  isolated  proper- 
ties, unless  it  be  that  of  fine  distant  views. 

However,  it  should  be  noted  that  to  face  a  building  precisely  at  right  angles  to  a 
particular  line  of  view  is  likely  to  result  in  an  appearance  of  conventionality, 
which  is  altogether  unsuitable  for  a  cottage  garden.  Furthermore,  in  a  boundary 
hedge,  apertures  which  are  directly  opposite  the  sides  of  a  house,  that  is,  in  an 
axial  relation,  make  a  yard  appear  more  open  than  if  they  are  in  an  oblique  re- 
lation. An  exposed  effect  is  apt  to  result  from  too  many  apertures  in  the  hedges, 
and  furthermore  they  interrupt  the* interior  scenery.  From  the  windows  of  a 
cottage,  a  single  glimpse  of  the  country  beyond  one's  boundaries  is  usually 
sufficient.  Walks  may  lead  from  the  house  to  points  in  the  yard  or  along  the 
boundaries  whence  the  country  may  be  seen  to  best  advantage,  and  at  times  it 
may  seem  worth  while  to  devote  one  whole  side  of  a  cottage  to  these  distant 
outlooks.  A  pleasing  distant  prospect,  advantageously  frarmd  by  a  narrow 
aperture  in  the  boundary  hedge,  will  ordinarily  be  more  interesting  than  a  view  of 
wide  expanse.  However  carefully  planned,  if  the  view  is  apparently  incidental, 
it  is  less  obvious  and  therefore  contributes  to  the  unstudied  effect  of  the  scheme. 
Hence,  it  does  not  appear  that  cottages  need  be  turned  to  any  precise  angle  with 
respect  to  the  lines  of  yiew;  in  fact,  the  more  incidental  relation  of  the  cottage  to 
possible  views  is  thought  to  present  those  views  more  interestingly;  moreover, 
the  necessity  for  openings  directly  opposite  the  sides  of  the  cottage  is  thereby 
obviated,  and  the  enclosed  and  sheltered  effect  within  is  preserved.  Thus  it  is 
evident  that  the  plans  for  rural  homes  are  concerned  mainly  with  conditions  with- 
in their  boundaries. 

Frequently  a  cottage  set  near  the  highway,  even  in  a  corner  near  one  of  the 
side  boundaries  is  the  most  accessible  to  the  road,  as  well  as  allowing  the  most 
advantageous  and  desirable  division  of  the  space  within.  Whether  or  not  a 
Cottage  is  much  in  evidence  from  the  highway,  it  is  usually  best  to  place  it  nearer 
to  the  road  than  to  the  rear  boundary,  for  reasons  of  accessibility  and  because 
the  quieter  area  in  the  rear  of  the  cottage  will  then  be  larger.  The  space  be- 
tween the  road  and  the  cottage  may  be  interestingly  treated,  whether  hedged  or 
open  to  view  from  the  road,  and  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  face  of  the  building 


9 

may  be  at  an  angle  to  the  road  rather  than  parallel  with  it.  However,  this  dis- 
cussion of  the  cottage  home  is  not  intended  to  imply  that  principles  for  its  plan- 
ning may  be  laid  down  with  the  same  definiteness  as  were  the  rules  governing  the 
planning  of  city  homes.  In  fact,  quite  the  contrary  is  true,  for  in  the  country 
one  is  freer  to  make  the  most  of  his  situation  and  to  indulge  his  own  taste.  It 
may  be  possible  for  one  to  generalize  in  a  description  of  the  cottage  home,  but 
principles  for  its  planning  must  consist  largely  of  exceptions  to  statements  in  the 
foregoing  chapters.  In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  all  that  contributes  to  the 
suitable  character  of  the  property  is  good.  But  every  situation  and  every  ex- 
ample must  be  a  law  unto  itself. 

A  garage  and  the  other  necessary  small  buildings  should  be  connected  with  the 
house,  in  order  to  be  accessible  and  convenient.  Whether  under  the  same  roof 
as  the  house,  or  merely  connected  with  it  by  means  of  architectural  features,  such 
as  fences,  arbors,  or  sheltered  walks,  the  grouping  of  outbuildings  and  their 
connection  with  the  house  may  be  made  very  attractive.  Roof  lines  may  be 
drawn  out  to  cover  one-story  appendages,  and  the  long,  horizontal  lines  of  a 
house  may  thus  be  effectively  emphasized.  Moreover,  outbuildings  may  be 
more  or  less  connected  and  arranged  to  surround  a  courtyard,  with  a  covered 
passage  through  them  or  with  an  arbor  around  their  outside.  The  necessary 
activities  within  the  house  and  in  the  yard  should  be  simplified,  whether  or  not 
one  expects  to  keep  numerous  help,  and  the  outbuildings  required  for  supplies, 
water,  or  lighting  equipment,  workshop,  garage,  or  livestock  should  all  be  closely 
related  to  the  house.  It  should  not  be  necessary  to  go  outdoors  in  the  perform- 
ance of  household  duties.  The  garage,  especially,  should  have  a  direct  conneo- 
tion  with  the  house.  Many  old  farm  house's  in  the  East  have  interesting  arrange- 
ments of  their  sheds  and  other  outbuildings,  but  the  arrangement  of  these  struc- 
tures about  a  courtyard  is  peculiar  to  the  South  and  to  southern  countries.  In 
hot  climates,  stone-paved  courtyards,  with  or  without  arbors,  are  the  scene  of 
many  household  activities,  and  are  also  attractive  as  architectural  features. 
In  connection  with  a  cottage  home,  its  usefulness  justifies  the  existence  of  a 
courtyard.  The  cottage,  with  all  its  necessary  structures,  should  combine  to 
form  an  interesting  and  picturesque  group.  If  the  general  scheme  here  suggested 
for  the  buildings  is  followed,  and  if  they  are  located  near  the  public  road,  it  will 
be  possible  to  place  the  garage  at  the  edge  of,  or  very  near,  the  highway,  thereby 
saving  road  area  as  well  as  escaping  the  difficulty  usually  caused  by  the  heavy 
snows  in  the  northern  section  of  the  country. 

The  important  outdoor  features  to  be  accommodated  in  the  cottage  property 
are:  gardens  for  flowers,  gardens  for  vegetables,  or  gardens  combining  flowers 
with  fruits  and  vegetables,  a  small  lawn,  a  service  area,  and  possibly  orchards 
and  meadows.  The  arrangement  of  these  principal  outdoor  areas  and  the  plan 
for  the  first  floor  of  the  cottage  are  quite  interdependent,  but  as  a  rule  there  are  no 
exterior  conditions  that  limit  the  formulation  of  general  plans.  In  short,  one  is 
without  restrictions,  and  may  make  the  most  of  the  conditions  to  be  found  on  any 
particular  lot;  and,  however  he  may  interpret  these  in  the  light  of  his  own  ideas, 
the  result  will  be  as  good  as  it  is  pleasing  and  practical.  If  a  high  and  dense  border 
is  made  along  the  highway,  the  presence  of  the  road  does  not  affect  the  arrange- 
ment. Therefore,  a  garden  or  a  lawn,  or  even  an  orchard,  may  as  well  occupy 
the  space  ordinarily  called  the  front  yard,  because  there  is  no  area  corresponding 


10 

to  the  front  yard  of  city  properties.  An  entrance  walk  may  have  to  traverse  it; 
but  an  entrance  under  old  apple  trees,  or  one  opening  upon  a  small  grass  court 
through  a  gateway  in  the  hedge,  or  an  approach  through  a  hedged  or  flower- 
bordered  garden  walk,  may  be  made  very  charming.  In  any  case,  the  entrance 
walk  may  be  given  a  fitting  introduction  to  a  cottage  home. 

There  are  no  conditions  which  demand  a  definite  use  for  the  area  adjacent  to 
the  road.  In  any  part  of  a  cottage  yard  one  should  find  a  picture  of  simple 
country  life,  though  not  without  evidences  of  comfort  and  plenty.  Apparently 
there  are  no  conventions  governing  the  assignment  of  area  on  any  side  of  a  cottage, 
although  one  may  prefer  the  sunny  sides  for  some  purposes  and  shady  sides  for 
others.  The  conditions  already  existing  in  any  particular  area  may  suggest  its 
uses.  For  a  certainty,  interesting  bits  of  rustic  scenery,  as,  for  instance,  small 
brooks  or  springs,  fine  old  trees,  and  the  like  should  be  given  prominence.  A 
very  fine  tree  may  well  be  the  dominant  feature  of  a  lot  and  determine  the  entire 
scheme.  A  new  house  cleverly  placed  with  relation  to  an  old  tree,  will  be  greatly 
enhanced  thereby,  as  it  will  receive  an  appearance  of  age  and  a  homelike  at- 
mosphere. Old  trees  of  any  kind  are  decidedly  an  asset,  and  unless  there  is  an 
abundance  of  them,  a  plan  should  carefully  relate  the  house  or  arrange  the  yard 
so  as  to  take  advantage  of  their  presence.  Of  course,  also,  one  must  know  when 
it  is  best  to  remove  trees  for  the  good  of  those  remaining  or  to  obtain  the  best  re- 
sults for  the  whole  scheme.  Some  trees  will  look  best  near  or  overhanging  a 
house,  and  others  in  an  orchard  or  in  a  small  meadow;  and  nut  trees  or  old  fruit 
trees  are  not  only  of  value  for  what  they  bear,  but  are  especially  desirable  by 
reason  of  their  character — so  suitable  to  a  cottage.  An  old  apple  tree  or  cherry 
tree  should  be  prized  for  its  blossoms  and  the  type  of  its  beauty,  whether  or  not 
its  fruit  is  good.  So  the  existing  growth  on  a  property  may  be  an  important 
factor  in  the  location  of  and  plan  of  a  cottage  or  in  determining  the  best  location 
for  gardens,  lawns,  or  other  features. 

A  spring  or  a  stream  may  be  left  as  it  is  or  its  natural  beauty  enhanced  by  the 
addition  of  plants  thriving  in  or  near  water.  As  a  feature,  running  water  is  an 
asset  and  should  not  be  destroyed,  but  rather  incorporated  in  the  scheme,  and, 
if  in  any  way  changed  it  should  be  enhanced.  In  fact,  the  natural  contour  of  the 
entire  lot,  if  it  has  been  carefully  selected,  may  to  a  large  extent  be  used  as  it  was 
found.  Thus  in  this  respect  as  well,  a  plan  for  a  house  and  yard  should  be  con- 
ceived with  a  view  to  making  the  most  of  the  original  contours.  In  a  meadow, 
the  natural  roll  of  the  land  may  be  more  suitable  than  it  is  possible  to  make  in  a 
new  grade,  but  to  say  the  least,  great  expense  is  saved  if  any  portion  of  the  land 
can  be  used  as  it  is  found.  Of  course,  if  a  cottage  is  placed  on  sloping  ground,  it 
is  better  to  plan  the  gardens  and  the  lawn  above  and  meadows  or  orchards  be- 
low, as  the  grade  of  the  former  should  be  more  nearly  that  of  the  cottage.  It  is 
not  wise  to  cut  or  fill  about  growth  which  is  to  be  saved.  Upon  the  amount  of 
cutting  or  filling,  and  the  hardiness  of  the  trees,  will  depend  the  degree  of  damage 
done  them  and  the  results.  But  to  fill  about  old  trees  sufficiently  to  cover  the 
base  of  their  trunks  as  they  spread  into  their  roots  and  into  the  ground  is  to 
destroy  their  natural  aspect  and  much  of  their  beauty.  Small  lawns  must  be 
comparatively  flat  to  be  serviceable,  and  gardens  likewise  usually  are  made  on 
one  level  or  on  several  levels;  and  if  the  contour  of  the  ground  is  not  suitable  in 
the  areas  where  gardens  and  lawns  seemingly  must  go,  then  grading  must  be  re- 


11 

sorted  to.  In  some  instances,  very  interesting  gardens  have  been  made  upon  very 
uneven  ground.  Rocky  outcrops  and  very  stony  ground  have  at  times  been  selected 
for  cottage  sites,  as  these  are  not  good  for  farming,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  offer 
possibilities  for  very  picturesque  cottage  settings.  All  of  such  natural  advantages 
should  be  cleverly  turned  to  good  purpose.  The  characteristics  of  a  situation  are 
the  factors  which  make  for  individuality  in  the  result.  Both  time  and  money  is 
saved  if  one  takes  the  utmost  advantage  of  original  conditions — trees,  native 
shrubbery,  streams,  rocky  outcrops,  and  the  shape  of  the  land.  A  scheme  thus 
based  upon  and  even  developing  the  conditions  at  hand,  has  an  air  of  simplicity. 
In  view  of  the  liberty  with  which  one  may  plan  such  country  homes,  that  their 
plans  should  carefully  be  fitted  to  original  conditions  would  seem  both  possible 
and  highly  desirable. 

It  does  seem  vain  indeed  to  attempt  a  description  or  an  analysis  of  cottage 
gardens.  Writers  gifted  with  the  ability  and  genius  to  paint  word  pictures  might 
describe  individual  gardens,  but  the  charm  of  the  gardens  has  been  said  to  lie  in 
their  individuality,  and  therefore,  however  inspiring  such  descriptions  might  be, 
new  gardens  could  not  be  patterned  after  them.  What,  then,  may  one  say  of  these 
gardens,  beyond  a  few  generalizations?  It  already  has  been  stated  that  they 
should  appear  to  dominate  the  cottage,  that  they  should  be  intimately  related  to 
it  in  elevation,  and  that  beyond  this  there  are  few  if  any  restrictions.  Many 
old-world  cottage  gardens  were  situated  between  the  house  and  the  road,  usually 
behind  high  walls  and  hedges  or  within  lower,  but  none  the  less  effective,  barriers. 
These  have  been  called  "dooryard  gardens. ' '  This  position  was  not  an  uncommon 
one  for  cottage  gardens  in  this  country,  and  in  fact  one  may  still  see  examples. 
If,  in  this  area,  considerable  isolation  is  not  possible,  this  location  is  not  a  suitable 
one  for  the  garden;  but  the  question  of  its  enclosure  appears  to  be  the  only  restric- 
tion upon  this  use  of  the  front  yard.  The  extent  of  the  area  on  this  or  the  other 
sides  of  the  cottage  is  not  of  any  moment  so  long  as  the  entire  space  in  gardens 
does  not  appear  small  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  lot.  The  gardens  may  be 
fitted  into  any  odd  angles  or  spaces,  but  a  sufficient  amount  of  the  garden  element 
is  an  important  factor  in  the  success  of  the  entire  scheme. 

Gardens  must  be  relied  on,  in  a  large  measure,  to  furnish  the  home  setting. 
The  space  between  the  building  and  the  lot  lines,  on  two  or  three  sides,  may  not 
actually  represent  a  great  extent  of  area;  but  gardens  on  the  several  sides  of  the 
cottage,  even  if  confined  entirely  to  these  areas,  may  require  more  care  than  can 
conveniently  be  given  them.  If  the  cottage  is  at  some  distance  from  one  bound- 
ary, hedges  may  be  used  to  enclose  a  space  sufficient  for  garden  purposes,  leaving 
the  remainder  of  the  area  free  for  other  uses.  But  it  is  important  to  devise  some 
means  of  obtaining  a  gardenlike  and  flowering  effect  and  one  which  will  be  some- 
what permanent  and  which  will  require  the  least  amount  of  care.  Flowering  and 
fruiting  woody  plants  should  be  scattered  liberally  through  the  flower  beds. 
Vines  on  quaint  trellises  and  not  only  deciduous  flowering  shrubs  but  also  ever- 
greens should  be  used.  Evergreens  should  be  trimmed  occasionally  to  prevent 
their  growing  too  large,  and  the  trimming  will  give  them  a  horticultural  and 
gardened  aspect.  In  the  winter,  the  greens  and  the  cheerful  color  of  the  berries 
on  shrubs  and  vines  will  indeed  be  appreciated.  Strong-growing  herbaceous 
plants  may  likewise  be  selected  for  those  plots,  as  their  hardy  and  spreading  habits 
will  not  crowd  out  the  shrubs  and  such  plots  will  require  but  little  care.  The 


12 

use  of  tall-growing  plants,  of  any  kind  though  preferably  of  woody  growth,  is 
quite  to  be  desired,  especially  if  they  do  not,  by  reason  of  their  numbers,  closely 
crowd  the  house.  The  pattern  of  the  garden  need  not  be  evident,  and  if  it  must 
be  explored  to  be  really  seen,  the  garden  will  be  all  the  more  interesting. 

It  is  not  considered  necessary  for  rural  gardens  to  appear  perfectly  dressed 
throughout  their  entire  extent.  If,  immediately  about  the  doorways,  there  is 
evidence  of  trimness  and  careful  cultivation,  an  overgrown  effect  in  the  more 
remote  corners  should  not  be  detrimental.  The  neglect  apparent  in  dead  and 
sickly  plants,  however,  is  to  be  distinctly  differentiated  from  the  appearance  of  a 
corner  of  flourishing  anemonies  or  lemon  lilies,  which  seemingly  thrive  best  when  un- 
disturbed in  their  favorite  situations.  If  the  owner  of  a  cottage  garden  is  a  true 
lover  of  plants,  he  will  insist  on  having  a  considerable  area  devoted  to  gardens, 
and  in  such  gardens  he  may  well  plant,  if  he  wishes,  a  CDnsiderable  collection. 
Tall-growing  shrubs  and  small  trees  which  do  not  submit  gracefully  to  shearing 
may  be  incorporated  in  the  hedges.  Most  shrubs  do  best  when  not  crowded  by 
others,  as  thus  they  are  free  to  assume  a  more  beautiful  form  and  to  flower 
and  to  fruit  more  profusely.  One  can  readily  imagine  the  amount  of  space  which 
could  be  filled  by  even  a  restricted  collection  of  flowering  shrubs  and  evergreens, 
especially  if  allowance  were  made  for  the  future  spreading  of  these  shrubs  and 
for  the  planting  of  some  herbaceous  plants  among  them.  A  great  variety  of 
plants  does  not  seem  to  be  out  of  character  with  country  gardens,  but  the  flourish- 
ing condition  of  each  plant  is  essential  to  the  cheerful  and  thriving  appearance  of 
the  garden.  With  high  hedges  and  a  plentiful  use  of  woody  plants,  the  gardens 
will  afford  all  conditions  of  exposure,  sun,  and  shade;  and  it  remains  only  for 
one  to  select  caref  lly  the  proper  situation  for  the  native  wild  flowers,  for  the 
various  bulbs,  and  for  the  cultivated  garden  flowers,  all  according  to  their  prefer- 
ence for  shade  or  sunlight.  The  well-known  garden  flowers,  such  as  delphiniums, 
phlox,  asters,  and  especially  the  biennials, — including  foxgloves  and  campanulas, 
are  essential  to  a  garden  and  yet  require  more  care  than  others.  Therefore  they 
may  be  used  near  the  house,  where,  if  less  in  quantity,  their  effect  will  be  greater. 
It  is  possible,  however,  to  have  enough  of  the  garden  element  to  dominate  the 
situation  without  inconveniencing  oneself  for  its  maintenance. 

The  enemy  of  high  hedges  should  realize  that  with  such  protection  for  gardens, 
orchards,  or  even  meadows,  many  plants  may  be  successfully  grown  which  are 
not  sufficiently  hardy  to  endure  the  open.  Not  only  will  all  plants  grow  far 
better  in  an  enclosed  garden,  but  a  surprising  number  of  plants  unknown  to  a 
locality,  and  also  perhaps  many  exotics  which  the  lover  of  plants  has  collected  in 
other  parts,  may  be  grown  successfully  in  a  well-enclosed  garden.  In  an  exposed 
location  in  the  open  country,  considerable  protection  is  needed  for  comfort- and 
also  for  ordinary  success  in  gardening. 

The  term  high  hedge  means  one  from  ten  feet  high  to  the  height  of  most  trees. 
Considerable  width  must  be  allowed  for  a  high  hedge,  not  only  for  the  healthy 
condition  of  the  tall-growing  shrubs  and  trees  which  compose  it,  but  also  to 
allow  the  development  of  sufficient  density.  A  wealth  of  interesting  vegetation 
may  be  grown  in  large  hedges  and  perhaps  no  where  else  in  a  small  yard.  Much 
evergreen  material  is  desirable,  and  trees  like  the  hemlock,  which  will  bear  crowd- 
ing and  still  retain  their  lower  branches,  should  be  selected.  Moreover,  many 
berry-bearing  shrubs  and  trees,  such  as  the  barberry,  the  mountain  ash,  the  tall 


13 

viburnums,  and  the  like,  will  thrive  in  a  crowded  hedgerow,  where  the  hemlock 
and  the  other  evergreens  will  furnish  an  ideal  background  for  the. color  of  the  dog- 
wood and  of  the  other  spring  flowers  and  fall  fruit.  Bittersweet  and  other  fruit- 
ing vine's  may  ramble  over  the  hedges,  draping  and  decorating  them  with  varied 
effects  during  the  passing  seasons.  Even  if  one  begrudges  ten  or  fifteen  feet  of 
width  for  boundary  hedges,  the  birds  will  appreciate  them.  In  the  open  country, 
an  enclosed  cottage  garden  becomes  a  veritable  sanctuary  for  birdlife. 

If,  for  hedges,  those  plants  are  selected  which  do  not  root  too  vigorously,  no 
trouble  will  be  found  in  growing  other  plants  close  to  them.  Of  course  it  is 
necessary  to  provide  plenty  of  good  soil  for  the  hedge  as  well  as  for  the  plants  of 
the  garden,  else  the  hedges  will  extend  their  roots  to  the  garden.  Paths  are  de- 
sirable along  all  hedges,  especially  while  the  hedges  are  young,  as  better  light  is 
thus  afforded  their  lower  branches  and  density  is  encouraged  where  it  is  most 
needed.  Furthermore,  such  paths  will  allow  space  into  which  the  hedge  may 
spread,  and  since  all  plants  have  strict  limits  concerning  the  width  required  for 
any  height,  the  hedges  cannot  be  trimmed  too  narrow,  lest  the  lower  branches 
die.  Interior  hedges  need  not  be  so  high,  of  course,  depending  only  on  the 
effects  desired.  But  in  every  respect,  the  effective  barrier  seems  essential. 

It  is  evident  that  some  pavement  must  be  provided  about  the  house  from  which 
it  is  possible  to  enjoy  the  gardens.  Adjoining  this  pavement,  the  gardens  may 
be  somewhat  lower-growing  and,  perhaps,  better  dressed.  It  is  not  considered 
necessary,  however,  or  in  most  cases  even  desirable,  to  have  the  garden  walks 
related  in  any  conventional  manner  to  this  pavement,  which  is  usually  on  the 
same  level  as  the  garden.  Nevertheless,  there  will  always  be  exceptions,  and  at 
times  it  may  be  desirable  to  have  more  openness  through  the  garden  on  the  axis 
of  the  house.  It  cannot  be  definitely  affirmed  that  regularity  of  the  paths  or  of 
the  size  or  shape  of  garden  plots  is  either  good  or  bad,  as  that  which  is  suitable 
depends  entirely  on  the  conditions  governing  each  situation.  Irregularity  of 
the  paths  and  a  decided  variation  in  the  size  of  the  plots  will  in  many  cases  look 
best  and  also  be  more  convenient  for  the  arrangement  of  the  plants.  Some  old 
gardens  look  as  though  the  plants  had  been  arranged  first  and  the  paths  subse- 
quently arranged  about  them.  Some  plants  do  best  in  large  masses,  and  others, 
with  a  tendency  to  spread  and  become  a  nuisance,  may  be  more  easily  confined 
in  small  plots  that  are  circumscribed  by  paths.  Sometimes  greater  interest  may 
be  afforded  small  garden  areas  if,  because  of  the  irregularity  of  the  walks,  but 
little  of  the  garden  is  at  any  one  time  disclosed.  Walks  may  be  grassed,  sanded, 
gravelled,  or  even  paved  in  some  manner.  The  surface  should  not  appear  to 
be  expensive,  but  should  be  unostentatious  and  made  of  local  material.  The 
necessity  for  pavement  is  felt  to  exist  principally  near  the  cottage;  and  while  any 
pavement  should  have  a  simple  aspect,  it  should  also  be  practical  for  the  uses  for 
which  it  is  primarily  intended. 

'Lawns  of  ample  dimensions  do  not  seem  to  be  necessary  for  small  homes  in 
ehe  country.  Children  will  always  prefer  to  play  in  the  fields  and  woods,  where 
they  may  be  free  from  restraint  and  where  there  is  likewise  ample  freedom  for  the 
txercise  of  their  imagination.  A  modest  home  in  the  country  may  comprise 
sufficient  land  for  a  small  orchard  or  a  meadow,  or  even  for  both,  and  this  will 
furnish  the  necessary  playground  and  one  far  better  than  a  lawn.  With  open 
land  all  about,  the  need  for  an  expression  of  spaciousness  within  the  limits  of  the 


14 

home  is  not  felt.  Some  small  area  in  good  turf  is  a  pretty  feature  and  is  ordi- 
narily considered  useful.  The  bordering  hedges  alone  may  surround  it,  or  it  may 
be  given  a  gardenlike  aspect  by  means  of  flowers  against  the  hedges.  Small 
lawns  may  combine  open  turf  areas  with  areas  of  flowers,  thus  providing  that 
which  is  necessary  for  a  lawn  and  gardens  while  at  the  same  time  reducing  the 
size  of  the  area  requiring  careful  maintenance.  To  be  useful,  however,  a  turf 
plot  should  be  as  level  as  possible;  and  no  more  turf  should  be  included  than  can 
be  thoroughly  prepared  and  beautifully  maintained.  A  small  lawn  should  not  be 
unkempt;  but  if  well  cared  for,  it  may  be  very  much  of  a  decoration. 

A  considerable  extent  of  land  is  never  undesirable  and  at  times  may  be  very 
advantageous.  Interesting  bits  of  scenery  are  desirable  acquisitions,  and  at 
times  the  interesting  features  that  one  may  want  to  include  in  his  purchase  do 
not  lie  so  near  as  to  be  included  in  as  small  a  parcel  of  land.  However,  if  several 
acres  are  purchased,  it  is  not  wise  to  plan  extensive  gardens  and  lawns  about  the 
house,  as  the  effect  which  is  sought  is  more  consistent  with  a  small  than  with  a 
large  area.  With  larger  lots,  one  may  well  devote  the  space  in  excess  of  that 
needed  for  the  pleasure  ground  and  the  service  area,  to  an  orchard  and  a  meadow. 
Small  bits  of  woodland  should  be  allowed  to  remain  in  their  natural  condition 
and  should  be  devoted  to  native  plants. 

A  small  orchard  is  an  attractive  as  well  as  a  useful  feature,  and  furthermore, 
it  is  equally  attractive  and  useful  even  when  it  is  not  as  carefully  maintained  as  a 
lawn  must  be.  Likewise  it  is  desirable  to  include  in  one's  small  domain  a  bit 
of  meadow,  especially  if  it  contains  fine  trees.  Somewhere  about  every  country 
home  there  sjiould  be  a  variety  of  nut  trees,  and  while  these  may  be  used  for  shade 
trees  about  the  house  or  in  the  service  court,  a  meadow  affords  space  for  more  of 
them  and  for  a  greater  variety.  If  orchards  or  meadows  are  extensive,  or  if  they 
are  not  provided  with  hedges  like  those  of  the  gardens,  then,  near  the  house, 
large  groups  of  tall  shrubs  or  massive  trees  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  permit 
satisfactory  outlooks  into  these  more  open  parts  of  the  property.  However, 
the  effect  of  too  much  openness  about  the  house  is  undesirable.  It  is  unimportant 
how  the  ground  of  these  areas  lies  with  respect  to  the  level  of  the  house.  Views 
will  be  equally  interesting  if  the  grade  of  the  surrounding  areas  is  considerably 
lower,  and  when  this  is  the  case  it  is  easier  to  drain  the  gardens  and  to  provide 
good  drainage  for  the  house.  But  in  planning  a  cottage  and  its  setting,  it  matters 
little  whether  the  grounds  are  very  limited,  or  are  more  extensive  and  include  an 
orchard  and  a  meadow.  Orchards  and  meadows  are  not  essential  to  a  cottage 
setting,  as  the  rural  outlook  is  generally  attractive,  whether  it  includes  one's 
own  or  a  neighbor's  land. 

The  relation  of  a  rural  property  to  the  country  round  about  with  respect  to 
views  might  furnish  material  for  considerable  difference  of  opinion.  Many 
persons  will  say,  "Why  go  to  the  country  and  then  hedge  yourself  in?"  Those 
persons  who  prefer  to  live  on  a  hilltop  and  to  command  an  uninterrupted  sweep 
of  the  horizon  will  never  know  the  appeal  of  the  intimacy  and  charm  which  it  is 
possible  to  create  under  some  such  conditions  as  have  already  been  described. 
Those  who  prefer  the  hilltop  home  find  it  difficult  to  appreciate  the  interest  and 
picturesqueness  of  vistas  and  restricted  views,  as  compared  with  an  uninterrupted 
panorama.  Limited  views  of  the  country  through  openings  in  the  boundary 
plantings  may  very  likely  be  pleasing,  although  there  is  some  difference  of  opinion 


15 

in  this  matter.  If  one  lives  in  the  country  all  the  year  around,  he  is  likely  to 
become  less  sensible  to  the  beauty  of  the  country.  For  most  city  folk  having 
summer  or  year-round  homes  in  the  country,  some  opportunity  for  glimpses  of 
rural  landscapes,  is  probably  desirable,  however.  And,  if  the  necessary  openings 
do  not  make  the  whole  scheme  too  open,  such  views  contribute  greatly  to  the 
interest  of  the  home.  It  may  be  better  to  have  the  views  apparently  merely 
accidental  rather  than  on  axial  relations  with  windows  and  doors,  and  in  the 
garden  hedges,  of  course,  one  should  never  make  breaches  to  provide  for  views 
from  the  house.  If  in  any  quarter  the  views  are  more  important  than  the  gar- 
dens, then  the  gardens  should  have  been  placed  elsewhere  in  the  beginning. 
Or  perhaps,  in  some  such  cases,  walks  may  lead  through  gateways  in  the  hedges 
to  points  without,  and  through  these  the  scenery  may  be  enjoyed. 

Much  might  be  said  of  details  which  are  particularly  suitable  to  homes  of  this 
character.  Architectural  details,  such  as  walls,  fences,  gates,  trellises  and  paving 
patterns  of  the  walks,  all  contribute  greatly  to  the  atmosphere  of  a  place,  if  they 
are  well-conceived  and  cleverly  made.  Likewise,  a  nice  selection  of  the  kinds 
of  plants  for  all  situations  is  equally  important.  For  example,  old  apple  or  other 
fruit  trees  of  interesting  character,  and  walnut  or  hickory  trees,  all  of  which  may 
be  useful  as  well  as  beautiful,  are  more  suitable  for  shade  trees  near  the  house  than 
are  fancy  varieties  of  shade  trees  or  even  native  trees  useful  only  for  their  shade. 
A  majority  of  the  plants  of  foreign  aspect,  such  as  the  effect  produced  by  an  al- 
most exclusive  use  of  fancy  evergreens,  will  suggest  city  gardens  rather  than  a 
country  home  and  will  also  look  too  studied.  The  decorative  value  of  appro- 
priate plants  and  also  that  of  interesting  architectural  details  is  needed  and  is 
very  important  in  establishing  the  desired  character  of  country  homes.  But 
neither  the  planting  nor  the  architectural  details  should  be  elaborate  or  appear 
costly,  though  they  should  be  apparently  useful.  If  they  can  be  clever  and  yet 
look  "homemade"  they  will  very  likely  be  good. 

When  a  walk  is  to  be  made,  one  should  consider  the  way  in  which  it  is  to  be  used, 
and  with  this  point  of  view  decide  whether  it  should  have  grass,  gravel,  brick,  or 
stone  paving.  If  it  is  to  be  an  important  walk  and  to  be  used  in  all  weather, 
material  should  be  selected  which  will  afford  dry  walking,  ease  in  shovelling  snow, 
and,  in  short,  be  practical  for  its  intended  use.  If  it  is  merely  a  garden  walk, 
less  effort  will  be  necessary  in  its  construction.  If  paving  is  to  be  used,  local 
material  will  be  in  better  taste  than  some  kind  which  is  unusual  and  apparently 
imported  from  a  distance.  If,  on  the  property,  there  happens  to  be  any  old 
building  material,  such  as  used  brick,  stone,  or  the  like,  this  may  be  advantageous- 
ly used,  especially  if  laid  in  some  interesting  pattern;  and  it  will  also  make  a 
serviceable  walk,  which  will  bear  witness  to  both  the  economy  and  the  art  im- 
pulse of  the  maker.  Old  material  is  always  interesting,  as  age  and  use  have 
worn  away  the  harshness  of  its  line  and  color.  The  evidence  of  the  handiwork  of 
the  owner  makes  an  appeal,  as  the  personal  and  individual  aspect  of  a  garden  is 
thereby  increased.  But  to  expect  an  owner  to  be  his  own  carpenter,  black- 
smith, mason,  and  gardener,  is  demanding  a  great  deal.  In  the  days  of  crafts- 
men, work  of  this  kind  was  easily  obtained  in  all  the  country  villages.  Now, 
skilled  laborers  have  lost  most  of  their  individuality,  and  men  are  machines 
rather  than  craftsmen.  However,  if  one  has  seen  interesting  details  of  simple 
design,  is  able  to  draw  them,  or  can  obtain  the  designs  from  books  or  from  other 


16 

sources, — then  of  course  he  can  have  made  attractive  walks,  gateways,  garden 
trellises,  and  many  other  details  which  contribute  in  a  large  measure  toward  the 
success  of  a  cottage  garden.  It  must  be  admitted,  that  the  design  of  such  detail 
is  most  difficult.  However,  to  some  extent  it  is  necessary. 

In  the  preceding  attempt  at  an  analysis  of  the  cottage  home,  which  is,  after  all, 
but  an  assumed  type,  the  aim  has  been  primarily  to  show  the  independence  of 
planning  possible  under  such  conditions,  and  also  to  picture  the  character,  or 
total  effect,  which  may  result  in  the  finished  product.  Necessarily  many  state- 
ments have  been  made  which  may  lead  one  to  the  conclusion  that,  after  all, 
cottage  gardens  are  not  such  erratic,  vague,  and  indefinable  productions  of  man 
as  they  might  at  first  appear.  If,  however,  these  descriptions  have  made  a 
somewhat  clarified  picture  in  the  mind  of  the  reader,  it  is  because  the  details  and 
examples  used  have  been  assumed  to  be  common  to  most  gardens  of  this  character. 
It  should  be  realized  that  actually  one  cannot  make  such  an  assumption.  Anal- 
ysis of  details  may  contribute  toward  the  clarity  of  the  general  picture.  Gen- 
eralizations may  recall  to  the  reader  similar  things  he  has  seen,  which  will  also 
add  their  touch  to  the  picture.  Contrasts  with  homes  which  are  quite  unlike 
may  check  one  who  has  moved  to  a  totally  new  and  different  environment  from 
repeating  that  which  he  has  become  accustomed  to  in  the  old.  But  for  that  which 
is  actually  completed  probably  no  rules  can  be  made. 

A  cottage  garden,  to  be  most  beautiful,  must  be  the  result  of  a  truly  artistic 
impulse.  Nevertheless,  many  have  been  made,  and  may  still  be  made, 
which,  while  not  as  beautiful  as  they  might  be,  are  still  interesting  in 
some  degree.  That  they  shall  be  interesting  to  their  owners  is,  of  course,  most 
important.  One  should  not  expect  to  produce  satisfactory  results  in  a  short 
time,  as  time  is,  and  always  has  been,  an  important  factor  in  their  making. 
It  may  be  possible  for  one  to  purchase  an  idea  from  ari  artist,  to  engage  skilled 
men  and  to  spare  no  expense  to  obtain  the  effect  of  age  at  the  beginning,  and  to 
engage  the  services  of  a  skilled  gardener  to  care  for  it  and  to  mould  it  as  it  grows. 
But  this  would  be  mere  "nature  faking,"  and  while  such  gardens  may  be  interest- 
ing, and  such  an  appreciation  of  simple  beauty  very  meritorious,  still,  if  it  were 
possible,  one  would  prefer  to  see  such  simple  homes  become  common  and  there- 
fore the  expression  of  the  individual.  Perhaps  this  hope  is  too  ideal  and  de- 
pendent on  too  many  conditions  that  are  non-existent  today, — among  which  the 
most  sadly  wanting  are  good  architectural  models  and  the  carpenter-architect 
of  taste  and  genius  who  lived  a  hundred  years  ago.  Some  old  houses  may  be 
copied  and  successfully  adapted  to  new  situations;  but  as  a  rule,  it  will  even 
be  hard  to  find  an  architect  gifted  not  only  with  the  skill  but  also  with  the  sym- 
pathy and  the  understanding  necessary  for  the  handling  of  such  difficult  and  un- 
profitable problems.  But  the  answer  to  all  these  difficulties,  is  improvement  of 
public  taste,  of  the  coming  of  which  there  is  every  assurance.  It  matters  little 
how  we  achieve  better  living  conditions,'  but  as  they  are  necessary  to  our  com- 
fort,— both  our  convenience  and  our  pleasure, — we  are  likely,  by  some  means, 
to  obtain  them.  If  there  is  a  genuine  desire,  and  especially  if  this  is  community 
or  a  country  wide  desire,  it  is  safe  to  assume  it  will  be  realized. 

Conditions  in  villages  vary  markedly.  In  some  villages  the  lots  are  narrow, 
and,  worse  yet,  the  new  houses  are  copied  from  the  poorest  models  of  the  city! 
The  lots  in  some  villages  erow  more  and  more  narrow  as  the  distance  from  the 


17 

center  of  the  town  increases.  This  may  be  the  result  of  building  the  houses  along 
the  main  roads  only,  and  perhaps,  with  the  thought  of  saving  footsteps  to  the 
village  stores.  But  it  would  be  better  to  subdivide  the  farm  land  between  the 
main- roads  and  thus  accommodate  many  homes  within  but  a  short  distance  of 
the  village  center.  No  doubt  the  cost  of  frontage  in  villages  seems  as  high  to 
the  villagers  as  does  the  cost  of  city  frontage  to  those  who  live  in  cities  or  in  sub- 
urbs. Nevertheless,  in  most  villages  in  this  country  the  average  lot  width  is 
sufficiently  ample  for  interesting  developments  of  the  yard.  And  if  the  frontages 
are  not  as  wide  as  might  be  desired,  the  lots  are  at  least  apt  to  be  deeper  thanmost 
city  lots;  and  while  space  in  this  relation  to  the  house,  may  not  be  so  advan- 
tageous as  if  at  the  side,  in  village  lots  this  may  prove  a  more  convenient  arrange- 
ment. Villages  in  this  country  are  rarely  as  closely  built  up  as  those  in  old 
European  towns,  or  as  our  American  cities.  Furthermore,  village  houses  either 
are,  or  at  least  should  be,  lower  than  the  average  city  house.  Therefore,  after 
one  has  set  aside  the  space  necessary  for  service  courts  and  a  small  lawn,  the  re- 
mainder, and  the  greater  part,  of  the  yard  may  well  be  made  into  gardens  of  some 
kind. 

There  should  be  a  reasonable  relation  between  house  plan  and  the  yard  plan, 
but  very  likely  the  conditions  in  villages  are  seldom  so  limiting.  If  it  is  possible 
to  conceive  of  schemes  for  village  homes  as  combining  both  city  and  country 
characteristics,  and  if  one  is  free  to  select  ideas  and  adapt  principles  from  the 
rules  governing  either  of  these  conditions,  according  as  his  individual  problem 
may  require,  he  should  encounter  little  difficulty  in  the  planning  of  his  property. 
Some  village  lots  are  so  restricted  that  builders  are  obliged  to  conform  to  con- 
ditions as  strict  as  those  prevalent  in  cities,  both  in  the  size  of  the  area  purchased 
and  in  respect  to  the  proximity  of  the  dwellings  on  adjoining  lots.  In  other 
cases,  where  wider  frontages  prevail,  houses  may  be  scattered  and  be  small  and 
low, — all  factors  making  for  an  environment  very  similar  to  that  of  the  open 
country. 

There  are  plenty  of  interesting  examples  of  village  homes  in  the  old  towns  of 
the  East,  and  while  their  original  gardens  have  seldom  been  preserved,  a  suggestion 
of  their  former  glory  sometimes  lingers.  Among  these  examples  are  to  be  found 
many  plans  which  differ  widely.  Sometimes  the  houses  are  placed  directly 
on  the  sidewalk;  and,  depending  on  the  width  of  the  lots,  either  the  houses  extend 
across  the  entire  frontage,  or  sideyard  space  is  left  for  gardens.  There  are  ex- 
amples of  corner  lots  with  the  house  directly  on  the  sidewalks  of  both  streets. 
These  plans  are  very  economical  in  the  use  of  space.  By  this  arrangement,  the 
front  door  of  the  house  may  be  on  the  main  street,  while  the  doors  to  the  kitchen 
and  sheds  may  face  on  the  side  street;  the  yard  space  then  remains  unbroken, 
and  a  small  lawn  for  the  laundry  and  the  play-yard  may  adjoin  the  kitchen  in 
the  rear,  leaving  the  greater  part  of  the  yard  for  gardens.  The  gardens  in  these 
village  homes  frequently  extend  to  the  street  fences,  and  thus  contribute  greatly 
to  the  character  of  the  village  streets.  When  many  tall-growing  plants  are  used, 
one  cannot  actually  see  far  into  the  gardens,  and  thus  for  the  dooryards  at  the 
side,  which  adjoin  the  living  rooms,  and  for  the  greater  part  of  the  gardens,  there 
is  sufficient  privacy.  However,  privacy  in  village  homes  is  not  as  important  a 
factor  as  it  is  in  city  homes. 

There  are  other  examples  of  houses  set  back  from  the  street;  and  frequently, 


18 

in  such  cases,  gardens  occupy  the  entire  front  yard;  in  other  cases,  flowers  are 
used  only  to  border  the  entrance  walk  or  in  groups  against  the  house,  the  re- 
mainder of  the  yard  being  lawn.  Other  attractive  front  yards  are  found  to  be 
very  like  those  described  as  suitable  for  suburban  homes.  On  some  village  streets 
there  is  no  adherence  to  a  building  line,  and  the  varied  front's  of  the  lots  produce  a 
decidedly  picturesque  effect,  quite  suitable,  at  times,  for  a  village.  Sometimes 
the  more  pretentious  village  houses  have  fronts  of  markedly  symmetrical  design ; 
and  frequently  these  houses  are  situated  midway  across  their  lot  widths,  and 
with  very  good  effect.  Also  there  are  numerous  examples  of  gardens  made  in  the 
form  of  borders  flanking  long  straight  walks — walks  which  at  times  are  related  to 
doors  or  windows  and  which  at  other  times  are  apparently  laid  without  regard  to 
the  house.  While  most  houses  exemplify  plans  laid  out  on  straight  lines  parallel 
with  the  lot  boundaries,  a  few  are  found  with  plans  of  no  regularity  whatever. 
The  attractiveness  of  these  village  homes  lies,  in  fact,  in  the  variable  nature  of 
their  plans.  Any  attempt  to  analyze  them  is  as  futile  as  the  effort  to  set  forth 
rules  for  country  cottages.  But  we  are  fully  aware  of  the  appeal  of  these  village 
homes.  Those  which  remain  in  a  good  state  of  preservation — and  even  those 
merely  suggesting  their  original  condition — display  sufficient  evidence  to  prove 
this  true.  In  the  villages,  the  situation  is  quite  the  same  as  that  in  the  country: 
city  restrictions  hold  only  with  respect  to  the  utilization  of  space  and  in  the 
essential  relations  between  the  main  indoor  and  the  outdoor  features.  The 
effect  of  openness,  so  essential  to  city  lots,  does  not  seem  necessary  in  small 
villages.  The  whole  village  is  the  children's  playground,  and  vacant  lots  abound 
as  well  as  nearby  open  country.  Also,  in  contrast  with  life  in  a  city,  village  life 
is  more  that  of  a  community.  Then,  after  all  is  said  and  done,  when  one  may 
plan  unhampered  by  restrictions,  his  prime  object  should  be  a  village  home  in  a 
garden  setting. 


LANDSCAPE  PLANNING 
FOR  SMALL  HOMES 


COPYRIGHT 
E.  GORTON  DAVIS 

DEPARTMENT  OF  LANDSCAPE  ARCHITECTURE 

COLLEGE  OF  ARCHITECTURE,  CORNELL  UNIVERSITY 

1922 


CHAPTER  VI 
ARRANGEMENT  OF  A  FARMSTEAD 

A  farmhouse  and  its  yard  may  not  be  planned  as  a  residence  alone,  as  is  the 
case  of  the  other  properties  so  far  discussed.  A  farm  is  a  home  and  a  business 
combined.  It  is  therefore  seldom  possible  to  think  of  and  to  plan  the  activities 
of  the  home  life  as  separate  from  the  work  of  the  farm.  The  farmhouse  should 
be  centrally  located  on  the  farm,  whether  immediately  on  a  public  road  or  back 
within  the  farm  lands;  and  about  the  house  as  a  center  should  be  grouped  the 
farm  work-buildings,  the  yards  for  fowls  and  the  paddocks  for  stock,  thfe  vege- 
table gardens,  the-  small  orchards,  and,  in  fact,  all  things  that  require  close  care, 
whether  they  relate  to  the  farm  produce  or  to  the  home  supply.  The  live- 
stock paddocks  and  the  most-used  areas  on  the  farm  will  have  to  be  near  the 
house  to  be  convenient.  Can  farmsteads,  then,  be  planned  to  be  practical  and 
convenient,  and  still  be  attractive  as  homes? 

An  orderly  arrangement  of  buildings  and  areas  is  always  the  most  convenient 
one,  and  this  arrangement  is  in  itself  good  looking  and  most  easily  kept  neat. 
The  farm  buildings  usually  represent  an  even  larger  valuation  than  the  farmer's 
house,  and  therefore  it  is  good  business  policy  to  keep  them  in  repair.  A  compact 
group  of  well-kept  farm  buildings  in  close  proximity  to  the  house  may  be  very 
attractive.  For  the  sake  of  the  outlook  from  the  house  it  is  better  to  have  the 
paddocks  on  the  far  sides  of  the  barns;  but  to  give  paddocks  the  protection  de- 
sirable for  them,  and  also  to  place  them  out  of  sight  from  the  house,  and  to  the 
leaward,  that  unpleasant  odors  may  cause  no  annoyance,  may  require  more  re- 
arrangement of  house  and  barns  than  is  possible  if  these  buildings  are  already 
established.  Practical  and  convenient  plans  for  farm  buildings  and  their  ad- 
jacent areas  will  unquestionably  derive  some  degree  of  attractiveness  from  their 
orderly  arrangement;  but  for  any  farm  there  is  usually  possible  more  than  one 
practical  arrangement,  one  which  is  both  practical  and  which  will  present  a  good 
appearance  both  from  the  house  and  from  the  road. 

The  importance  of  careful  planning  in  any  project  or  business  is  usually  con- 
sidered necessary  for  the  achievement  of  satisfactory  profits;  and  the  orderliness 
generally  accompanying  successful  farming  or  other  well-organized  enterprises, 
has,  no  doubt,  likewise  been  observed.  But  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  home 
itself,  the  possibility  of  pleasant .  living  conditions  should  not  be  disregarded. 
Attractive  settings  for  home  life  are  important  in  the  country  as  well  as  in  the  city, 
and  the  opportunities  in  the  country  are  greater.  When  one  lives  long  amid 
pleasant  surroundings,  he  realizes  the  value  of  their  influence,  and  becomes  con- 
vinced that  such  inspiration  is  needed  for  his  work  and  for  his  rest.  In  the  home, 
it  would  seem,  should  start  the  real  development  of  the  country.  Home  life 
must  be  wholesome,  full  of  opportunity,  and  attractive,  in  order  to  sustain  inter- 
est and  make  successful  a  business  enterprise  in  the  country.  Outward  signs  in 
villages  and  on  farms  in  a  large  measure  indicate  whether  thriving  and  contented 
conditions  exist  in  the  life  of  the  families  and  of  the  community.  Well-cultivated 
farm  lands  always  look  well,  but  the  yards  about  the  farmhouses  require  some 

3 


care  and  well  deserve  it.  Farm  homes  should  not  strive  to  look  like  city  1-omes, 
in  order  to  appear  prosperous  or  attractive,  nor  will  they  if  their  owners  are  true 
exponents  of  country  life. 

Farmhouses  with  a  tendency  to  be  low  and  spreading  look  better  than  those 
built  tall.  Generous  porches  will  add  to  the  appearance  of  lowness.  The  style 
of  old  farmhouses  commonly  called  "colonial"  is  appropriate  for  the  country, 
and,  with  some  modification  to  adapt  it  to  the  convenience  of  modern  houses, 
this  type  is  advocated.  It  is  simple,  appears  substantial,  and  is  without  ornament 
except  .perhaps,  for  such  details  as  are  essentially  a  part  of  its  construction.  Need- 
less and  showy  ornament  has  no  place  about  a  farmhouse.  If  one  thinks  he  can 
afford  to  ornament  his  farmhouse,  let  his  means  be  shown  in  better  mouldings 
about  the  eaves,  in  better  posts  for  his  porches,  and  in  well-designed  doorways. 
The  woodwork,  inside  and  out,  of  many  old  farmhouses  is  better  than  can  be 
bought  nowadays  from  stock,  and  it  is  frequently  bought  and  highly  prized  by 
city  folk.  When  repaired  and  painted,  this  wood  is  as  good  as. new  and  better 
seasoned.  But  farmhouses  may  be  effectively  decorated  only  by  the  improvement 
of  their  esential  details.  Simple  and  comfortable  houses,  painted  inside  and  out 
in  the  conventional  white,  look  far  better  than  do  fancy  imitations  of  cheap  city 
houses,  gaudy  with  many  colors  without  and  glistening  with  varnish  within. 
A  countrylike  house  for  the  country  is  a  good  beginning  and  an  important  one. 

The  best  of  houses  appears  to  a  disadvantage  if  standing  in  an  open  and  ex- 
posed situation,  at  the  mercy  of  summer  sun  and  winter  blasts.  Both  the  neces- 
sary activities  about  the  house  and  the  recreation  in  the  yard  are  afforded  greater 
convenience  and  comfort  if  sheltered  to  a  reasonable  degree  by  windbreaks,  or- 
chards, and  carefully  placed  shade  trees.  The  tree  growth  necessary  for  pro  tection 
is  usually  sufficient  to  furnish  a  house  with  the  setting  essential  to  its  good  ap- 
pearance. Additional  trees,  shrubs,  and  flowers,  well  arranged  to  make  an  at- 
tractive and  livable  yard,  will,  no  doubt,  contribute  in  an  even  greater  degree  to 
the  beauty  of  the  farm  home  and  of  all  that  is  a  part  thereof.  A  great  deal  of 
planting  is  not  necessary  to  make  a  good-looking  yard,  and,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
house,  simplicity  should  be  the  keynote  of  the  yard. 

Farm  home  grounds  should  be  planned  to  require  but  little  care.  The  care  of  the 
yard  is  no  such  diversion  to  the  farmer  as  is  gardening  to  the  city  man  ;further,a  yard 
will  need  the  most  care  when  other  farm  work  is  most  pressing  and  when  work- 
ing hours  are  necessarily  long.  Some  gardening  in  the  open  air  may  at  times  be 
pleasant  to  the  farmer's  wife,  but  this  should  not  be  so  arduous  as  to  constitute 
an  extra  burden  for  her.  Therefore,  to  begin  with,  the  total  space  of  the  rural 
yard  should  not  be  greater  than  can  easily  be  well  kept.  The  planting  should  con- 
sist largely  of  trees — low-branching  where  they  are  to  serve  as  backgrounds  and 
windbreaks,  and  tall  where  only  their  shade  is  required.  There  is  usually  plenty 
Of  latitude  for  the  selection  of  shrubs  desirable  for  their  flowers  and  fruit ;  but, except 
for  a  few  bushes  about  the  house, shrubbery  should  be  massed  against  the  trees  along 
the  borders  rather  than  scattered  about,  in  order  to  keep  the  lawns  clear  and  open 
and  also  to  contribute  to  the  density  of  the  background.  It  must  be  remembered 
that  for  the  greater  part  of  the  open  season  the  shrubs  will  have  no  flowers,  but  that 
if  they  have  showy  fruit  this  will  appear  advantageously  against  the  background. 
Open  lawns  with  a  few  fine  shade  trees  may  be  mown  more  easily  than  those 


covered  with  scattered  clumps  of  bushes,  and  the  "tree  and  lawn"  scenery  will 
look  more  fitting  in  that  it  is  more  country  like. 

The  home  grounds  are  likely  to  be  rectilinear  in  shape,  as  the  surrounding 
fields  and  orchards  must  be  thus  to  be  practical.  So  far  as  the  yard  is  concerned, 
its  outline  is  of  little  importance.  Unless  the  slope  from  the  road  to  the  house 
is  very  steep  or  irregular,  the  road  should  be  laid  out  on  a  line  paralleling  the 
house  or  the  division  fences,  and  it  should  be  kept  to  one  side  of  the  yard,  prefer- 
ably that  of  the  kitchen  and  working  rooms,  and  should  continue  straight  to  the 
barnyard  and  outbuildings  in  the  rear.  Roads  should  always  follow  the  fence 
lines  and  should  not  cut  either  fields  or  lawns  into  irregular  areas.  Walks  should 
be  direct,  with  their  lines  determined  by  the  routes  most  travelled. 

The  parallelism  of  the  walks  with  the  lines  of  the  house,  of  the  road,  or  of  the 
fences  is  of  less  importance,  however,  on  the  farmstead.  They  are  business 
routes  rather  than  the  pleasure  walks  of  a  city  garden ;  and  if  there  is  good  reason 
for  their  direction,  and  if  they  are  not  raised  too  high  above  the  level  of  the  ground, 
they  will  look  well.  If  the  house  has  its  work  rooms  on  the  side  toward  the  entrance 
road,  these  walks  will  not  need  to  cut  across  the  lawn  in  order  to  furnish  ready 
access  to  the  farm  buildings.  Hence  the  natural  result  will  be  an  unbroken  lawn 
in  front  and  on  the  side  away  from  the  road,  with  plantings  mainly  along  the  fences 
and  massed, — a  very  simple  and  easily  kept  yard. 

While  nowadays  it  is  easy  for  farmer  folk  to  reach  the  village  or  a  nearby  city 
for  their  recreation,  nevertheless  the  greater  part  of  their  time  must  be  spent  at 
home,  and  it  would  be  better  if  the  homes  were  so  attractive  as,  of  themselves, 
to  afford  satisfactory  recreation.  Of  course  an  attractive  yard  is  of  first  im- 
portance as  a  proper  setting  for  home  life,  especially  in  its  refining  and  educating 
influence  on  the  children.  Hence  it  is  worth  while  to  develop  a  yard  which  will 
look  more  than  merely  passing  well.  To  begin  at  the  house,  the  doors  as  well 
as  the  windows  should  open  on  to  the  lawn.  Porches  overlooking  this  area  will 
have  a  pleasant  prospect  and  may  be  used  for  work  and  for  occasions  when  one 
does  not  wish  to  sit  in  the  front  of  the  house.  New  houses  should  be  built  low 
on  the  ground,  especially  on  the  lawn  side,  as  the  fewer  the  steps  between  the 
ground  and  the  first  floor,  the  more  easy  will  be  the  access  to  the  out-of-doors. 
Many  persons  enjoy  that  part  of  the  yard  which  is  nearest  the  house  and  most 
seen  from  its  windows,  provided  the  trees  and  shrubs  have  been  so  arranged  as 
to  make  it  somewhat  enclosed.  In  fact,  a  side  yard  may  be  made  decidedly 
gardenlike  with  a  good  background  of  trees,  shrubs  in  occasional  recesses,  and  here 
and  there  flowers,  grouped  in  quantities  depending  on  the  time  one  is  willing  to 
devote  to  them.  If  a  side  yard  is  not  wholly  open  to  view  from  the  public  road, 
it  may  well  be  given  a  somewhat  gardenesque  treatment,  thus  affording  both  a 
pleasant  place  in  which  to  sit  outdoors  and  an  agreeable  outlook  from  the  house. 
If  it  is  easily  accessible  from  the  house  and  interesting  and  appealing  in  its  ap- 
pearance, both  the  indoor  and  the  outdoor  life  of  the  home  will  be  made  more 
pleasant.  A  home  should  be  enjoyed,  but  it  must  first  be  made  attractive. 

Usually  from  every  farmhouse  there  are  some  more  distant  outlooks  which 
are  of  particular  interest.  Also,  as  there  is  much  of  interest  passing  on  the  high- 
way, a  more  or  less  unobstructed  view  of  the  road  is  desirable.  There  may  be 
objects  on  one's  own  farm,  or  on  adjoining  farms,  which  are  uninteresting  or  are  even 
unsightly;  but  with  these  notations  in  mind,  one  should  so  dispose  the  trees  in 


6 

groups  or  in  masses  or  in  a  hedgerow  as  to  permit  an  outlook  where  it  is  desirable, 
and  to  hide  the  uninteresting,  or  perhaps  unsightly,  objects;  and,  if  possible,  also 
plant  windbreaks  only  in  that  quarter  where  the  view  of  the  surrounding  country 
is  the  least  interesting.  One  may  wish  to  have  an  enclosed  part  of  the  yard  either 
at  the  side,  the  back,  or  perhaps  even  toward  the  front  of  the  house.  At  the  same 
time,  interesting  distant  outlooks  may  also  lie  in  the  same  line  of  sight  from  the 
house  as  does  the  enclosed  yard  or  garden.  Of  course  one  cannot  look  at  a  garden 
and  at  a  distant  view  at  the  same  time  and  fully  enjoy  each.  Moreover,  as  one 
already  has  the  view  to  start  with,  why  not  make  the  garden  somewhere  else  in 
order  to  increase  the  number  of  interesting  outlooks  from  the  house?  The  garden 
too  is  spoiled  if  left  open,  as  is  necessary  if  distant  views  are  to  be  arranged  for 
across  it.  A  desirable  garden  must  be  enclosed,  or  at  least  convey  a  sense  of  that 
privacy  which  is  achieved  by  enclosure.  A  distant  view  appears  surprisingly 
more  interesting  when  a  heavy  border  is  planted  on  either  side  of  it,  just  as  a 
suitable  frame  enhances  a  picture.  And  considering  the  view,  with  its  flanking 
masses  of  trees,  as  a  framed  picture,  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  frame 
should  not  be  particularly  noticeable;  hence  the  vegetation  about  these  openings 
in  a  border  should  not  be  such  as  will  be  more  prominent  than  is  the  scene  in 
the  distance  which  it  is  intended  to  frame. 

The  point  of  view  from  which  one  should  do  most  of  his  planning  is  the  house. 
Ordinarily,  the  house  is  already  built  and  the  farm  buildings  more  or  less  fixed 
as  to  position  and  uses.  Furthermore,  in  some  cases  the  buildings,  necessarily 
the  most  important  elements  of  a  plan,  are  so  arranged  as  to  make  an  ideal  develop- 
ment very  difficult.  However,  in  accordance  with  some  definite  ideal,  it  is  general- 
ly possible  to  somewhat  ameliorate  a  few  of  these  unfortunate  conditions,  and  to 
plan  for  further  improvement  at  some  future  time.  Also,  under  most  conditions, 
however  unfavorable,  it  is  possible  to  satisfy  the  essentials  as  to  shelter  and 
reasonable  attractiveness  of  setting  for  a  house.  There  are  few  farmhouses  in- 
deed which,  by  the  use  of  a  few  fine  trees,  carefully  disposed,  cannot  be  made  to 
look  like  homes.  If  it  is  not  possible  to  arrange  for  gardens  and  shrubberies 
within  close  view  of  the  house,  they  may  be  equally  interesting  in  a  different 
aspect,  even  though  necessarily  more  distant  and  not  plainly  seen  from  the  house 
windows,  or  at  least  not  so  near  as  to  be  easily  accessible.  In  choosing  the  plants 
for  the  yard,  it  has  already  been  suggested  that  trees  should  be  predominant. 
They  are  necessary  for  a  satisfactory  windbreak,  and  their  height  and  size  is 
likewise  necessary  to  make  for  scenery  in  the  yard  which  is  in  scale  and  also  in 
character  with  the  surrounding  landscape.  It  is  highly  desirable,  also,  to  use 
many  evergreens.  Although  they  are  not  so  suitable  for  shade  as  are  some  of  the 
tall-growing  and  more  spreading  deciduous  trees,  in  the  borders  evergreens  are 
indispensable,  and  in  winter  they  are  both  effective  and  cheerful.  No  foliage  is 
the  equal  of  the  hemlock  in  color,  in  value,  or  in  fine  texture.  Pines  are  interest- 
ing in  themselves  and  some  will  grow  faster  than  hemlocks,  but  as  they  get  old 
their  habits  of  growth  are  somewhat  open  and  thus  they  do  not  in  the  end  make 
as  effective  windbreaks  as  do  the  more  dense-growing  trees,  unless  perhaps  they 
can  be  planted  in  wide  groves.  In  the  selection  of  trees  for  farm  yards,  native 
species  should  be  the  favorites.  They  may  be  collected  about  the  farm,  will  be 
sure  to  grow  better  than  most  trees  that  are  not  indigenous,  and  may  be  relied 
upon  to  look  well.  If  evergreens  are  not  found  in  some  particular  locality,  there 


are  certain  varieties  which  will  grow  in  almost  any  locality  if  the  conditions  are 
made  right  for  them,  Frequently,  it  is  merely  a  matter  of  planting  only  the  more 
hardy  evergreen  or  deciduous  species  on  the  sides  facing  the  worst  winds.  But 
in  any  case,  horticultural  and  imported  varieties  of  trees  and  shrubs  should  be 
used  sparingly  if  at  all.  We  do  not  lack  for  variety  or  for  beauty  in  the  native 
vegetation  in  any  section  of  this  country. 

In  making  a  selection  of  shrubs,  it  is  likewise  possible  to  depend  largely  upon 
the  native  vegetation.  Farmers  usually  dislike  the  native  shrubs,  as  they  are 
accustomed  to  grub  them  out  of  the  fields  and  hedgerows;  but  a  farmer  in  one 
section  will  pay  a  high  price  for  a  single  bush  which  is  strange  to  him,  though 
very  likely  a  common  native  plant,  perhaps  even  an  annoying  weed,  in  another 
part  of  the  country.  Many  of  the  shrubs  used  in  the  yards  and  grown  by  the 
nurseries,  are  merely  natives  of  other  parts  of  this  country.  There  are,  however, 
cultivated  varieties  of  shrubs  which,  for  their  flowers  or  fruit,  are  quite  indispen- 
sable about  any  home.  A  judicious  selection  of  these  horticultural  varieties,  such 
as  the  lilacs,  is  desirable,  but  it  should  be  remembered  that,  for  a  greater  part  of 
the  growing  season,  they  will  bear  nothing  but  leaves.  Therefore,  shrubs  should 
be  selected  which  have  good  foliage, — that  is,  foliage  of  no  unusual  tone  of  green,  of 
small  leaves  rather  than  large,  and  dense.  Trees  or  shrubs  whose  leaves  fall 
very  early  are  not  desirable.  Also  plants  with  strange  or  peculiar  foliage  or  of  un- 
usual habits  of  growth, — in  short,  all  plant  freaks, — should  be  avoided.  In  the  fall 
one  expects  to  see  foliage  in  brilliant  colors,  as  this  is  a  season  of  color ;  but  in  spring 
or  summer,  green  leaves  are  needed  for  a  background  for  the  flowers  or  fruit. 
Even  if  some  of  the  shrub  varieties  have  no  showy  flowers,  the  variation  in  the 
green  of  their  foliage  will  be  equally  pleasing. 

About  the  house  shrubs  should  be  used  rather  sparingly.  Single  plants  at 
some  of  the  corners,  and  occasional  groups  look  best.  A  house  should  look  well 
of  itself  and  should  not  need  to  be  covered  up  with  planting.  If  it  is  built  too  high 
out  of  the  ground  to  appear  well,  filling  about  it  is  the  only  remedy,  as  the  trouble 
is  due  to  defective  grading,  not  planting.  To  smother  the  house  in  planting,  or 
to  make  it  appear  as  though  supported  by  bushes,  is  only  to  add  error  to  error. 
The  vegetation,  therefore,  should  be  confined  mostly  to  the  borders,  and  drawn 
out  into  the  open  lawn  only  where  it  is  necesary  to  partially  separate  one  part 
of  the  yard  from  another.  All  areas  should  be  generally  open  and  unobstructed. 

The  additional  study  and  development  of  the  yard,  in  order  to  afford  more  than 
merely  a  barely  passable  setting  for  the  house,  should  not  add  much  to  the  amount 
of  planting  used,  nor  should  it  make  the  yard  appear  cluttered,  nor  materially 
affect  the  amount  of  care  required.  More  livable  yards  result,  for  the  most  part, 
when  merely  a  little  more  forethought  is  used  in  planning  them. 

If  one  endeavors  to  think  of  places  that  have  impressed  him  as  being 
attractive,  he  may  find  it  difficult  to  recall  just  how  those  places  were  laid  out. 
It  is  most  likely  that  the  impression  was  one  of  its  entirety  rather  than  of  its  com- 
ponent parts,  such  as  an  elm  tree,  a  few  rose  bushes,  a  garden  seat,  and  a  bed  of 
petunias.  In  other  words,  such  a  scene  was  a  picture,  not  merely  a  collection  of 
objects.  For  this  reason,  in  planning  a  yard,  everything  that  is  done  should 
give  a  positive  answer  to  the  question:  Will  this  make  the  home  grounds  look 
better  as  a  whole  scene?  No  matter  what  the  individual  taste  as  to  the  home 
grounds  may  be,  one  should  always  keep  in  mind  their  total  effect  while  planning 


8 

their  details.  It  should  be  remembered,  also,  that  the  house  is  the  center  of  the 
picture.  The  lawns  serve  merely  as  a  carpeted  floor,  or  groundwork,  on  which 
the  trees  and  the  shrubs  are  so  arranged  as  to  best  set  off  the  house.  Borders 
furnish  the  frame  to  the  picture.  They  should  therefore  be  simple  and  dignified, 
and  will  look  best  if  composed  mostly  of  green  foliage.  This  proscenium  of  green, 
when  it  opens  to  a  pleasant  outlook  over  the  fields,  is  also  the  best  frame  to  the 
distant  picture,  and  may  likewise  serve  as  a  background  to  set  off  the  beauty  of 
clumps  of  flowering  shrubs  along  the  edge  of  the  border  itself.  The  outlooks 
from  the  house  should  be  so  planned  as  to  avoid  any  confusion  of  interests;  in 
one  direction  one  should  see  only  unbroken  lawn  and  distant  border;  in  another, 
some  shrubs,  showy  with  flowers  or  berries ;  in  another,  an  open  view  over  the  mead- 
ows; and  perhaps,  in  still  another,  the  suggestion  of  a  garden  or,  what  is  fully  as 
beautiful,  a  vista  through  the  rows  of  an  orchard.  By  these  simple  means  and 
these  unified  effects  may  the  yard  about  a  farmhouse  be  made  more  livable,  and 
homelike,  and  the  country  of  which  the  yard  is  a  part,  may  be  more  enjoyed  and 
appreciated  as  an  ideal  setting  for  a  home. 


CHAPTER  VII 

A  keen  appreciation  of  the  possibilities  of  land,  irregular  either  in  contour  or  in 
outline,  will  frequently  enable  one  to  select  and  to  purchase  at  low  cost  lots  which 
may  be  made  into  far  more  interesting  homes  than  can  comparatively  flat  lots 
which  are  usually  considered  more  valuable.  If  one  has  seen  interesting  examples 
of  houses  and  yards,  cleverly  planned  to  fit  lots  of  peculiar  shapes,  or  perhaps 
recalls  hillside  situations  turned  to  interesting  account,  he  may  be  more  alive  to 
the  opportunities  afforded  by  these  unusual  conditions.  As  a  rule,  lots  of  odd 
shapes,  remnants  of  land  in  a  block,  land  below  the  level  of  the  street,  or  very 
high  above  it,  or  plots  in  any  other  way  irregular,  are  thought  thereby  to  be 
depreciated  in  value  and  difficult  or  more  costly  to  develop.  Consequently  they 
are  hard  to  sell,  and  therefore  are  usually  less  expensive. 

Ordinarily  the  houses  and  the  yards  on  such  sites  are  cheap  and  unattractive, 
or,  at  best,  but  awkward  adaptations  of  plans  to  contour  conditions.  This  may 
be  due  to  the  economy  necessary  in  their  construction  or  to  a  want  of  appre- 
ciation of  the  possibilities  of  artistic  development  which  the  land  affords. 
As  unattractive  rather  than  clever  developments  are  more  common  to  these  ir- 
regular lots,  the  opinion  consequently  prevails  that  they  are  undesirable.  Those 
whose  experience  has  shown  them  the  error  of  this  opinion  may  be  able  to  take 
good  advantage  of  their  better  understanding.  In  looking  about,  one  may  find 
lots  in  well-built-up  and  desirable  localities,  which  have  apparently  been  rejected 
on  account  of  their  irregularity.  However,  in  addition  to  some  understanding 
of  the  planning  of  small  homes  on  flat  ground,  in  more  complicated  situations 
one  must  still  be  able  to  adhere  to  the  fundamental  principles  governing  planning. 
A  very  close  examination  of  the  conditions  existing  on  any  lot  will  be  necessary,  in 
order  to  make  certain  that  it  does  have  some  possibilities.  A  flat  lot  offers  more 
alternatives  for  the  convenient  arrangement  of  a  home.  Irregularity  in  the  out- 
line of  a  lot  may  appear  to  afford  either  too  much  or  too  little  space  in  the  places 
where  it  is  most  needed.  When  there  is  a  marked  difference  of  level  in  a  plot,  the 
general  allotment  of  space  becomes  complicated.  Planning  for  the  areas  which, 
by  reason  of  their  use,  are  closely  related  to  the  house  and  desirably  of  a  similar 
elevation,  requires  a  careful  selection  of  the  site  for  the  house,  and  frequently, 
also,  clever  planning  of  the  house  itself  is  necessary  in  order  to  adapt  it  to  a  perhaps 
unusual  situation.  An  amateur  in  landscape  architecture,  by  reason  of  his  in- 
terest in,  and  appreciation  of,  these  picturesque  examples  of  small  homes, — most 
likely  the  result  of  broader  experience  and  of  keen  observation, — may  perhaps 
recognize  the  possibilities  of  a  lot  or  of  a  piece  of  land,  and,  further,  be  correct 
in  his  estimate  of  its  value.  But  it  is  not  likely  that  he  alone  will  be  able  to  plan 
it  to  the  best  advantage. 

To  make  the  best  plans  for  small  and  irregular  lots,  considerably  more  skill 
and  experience  is  required  than  to  plan  larger  properties  which  are  uncompli- 
cated by  either  want  of  sufficient  space  or  irregular  topography.  Experience  and 
skill,  however,  should  enable  one  to  use  more  of  the  topographical  conditions  as 
they  exist  and  to  fit  a  plan  to  them  with  less  expensive  grading  and  construction; 
and  it  should  also  enable  him  to  turn  to  good  use  and  to  picturesque  effect  many 

1 


conditions  which  in  the  beginning  were  seeming-  difficulties.  However,  in  select- 
ing a  lot  one  should  be  careful  to  distinguish  between  irregularities  which  may  be 
turned  to  good  effect,  and  those  which  in  fact  are  difficulties.  Some  conditions 
will  render  a  good  plan  more  expensive  or  even  impossible. 

It  is  natural  for  one  viewing  a  piece  of  land,  to  think  first  of  the  possible  site 
for  the  house;  and  this  is  the  logical  first  thought.  More  possibilities  will  sug- 
gest themselves  to  one  having  some  knowledge  of  house  planning,  of  course,  as 
his  conception  of  house  plans  will  be  more  flexible.  At  the  same  time,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  observe  carefully  the  lay  of  the  land  about  any  assumed  house  site,  as  it  is 
by  this  means  alone  that  uncorrectable  mistakes  are  avoided,  the  least  expensive 
plans  realized,  and  the  most  attractive  homes  made  possible.  Irregularity,  in 
outline  or  in  surface,  does  in  fact  complicate  the  problem  of  planning ;  and  it  neces- 
sarily follows  that  careful  planning  is  thereby  made  still  more  important.  A  house 
is  unquestionably  the  most  important  single  feature;  but  to  look  its  best  and  to 
best  serve  its  purposes,  it  must  be  planned  as  a  part  of,  and  in  accord  with,  the 
land  adjoining  it.  The  cost  of  the  entire  development,  the  time  required  for  its 
completion,  the  greatest  convenience,  the  best  appearances,  and,  accordingly, 
the  ultimate  value  of  the  property,  all  depend  upon  comprehensive  and  skillful 
planning  at  the  start. 

Thus  the  selection  of  a  site  for  a  new  house  is  an  important  step,  as,  whether 
or  not  he  realizes  it,  one  in  effect  plans  not  only  the  house,  but  also  the  whole 
lot,  for  better  or  for  worse.  By  the  term  house  site  considerably  more  than  mere 
structural  possibility  for  building  or  good  outlooks  is  implied.  When  houses 
are  located  and  built  with  no  thought  of  their  relation  to  the  land  about  them, 
what  are  the  results?  First  of  all,  more  grading  will  usually  be  necessary  to  fit  the 
land  to  the  house  sufficiently  to  be  even  useful,  and  this  means  unnecessary  ex- 
pense. Moreover,  the  opportunity  to  obtain  the  most  convenient  and  interesting 
scheme  is  lost.  What,  then,  are  the  requisites  of  a  good  site  for  a  house?  First, 
it  is  generally  agreed  that  the  site  should  be  examined  from  the  point  of  view  of 
the  structural  aspects  of  the  building, — the  possibilities  afforded  for  an  attractive 
interior  and  for  pleasant  outlooks.  Secondly,  the  house  site  selected  should  be 
examined  in  its  relation  to  the  land  immediately  adjoining  and  to  the  entire  lot, 
with  special  consideration  of  the  amount  of  space  to  be  available  on  all  sides  and 
of  the  elevations  in  their  possible  relation  to  the  floors  of  the  house  and  to  particular 
rooms. 

At  any  stage  in  the  examination  of  a  lot,  one  may  take  note  of  those  parts  which, 
by  reason  of  their  conformation,  their  relative  elevation,  or  their  trees  or  other 
growth,  suggest  interesting  opportunities  for  the  making  of  lawns,  gardens  of 
any  kind,  or  routes  for  walks  or  drives.  The  position  of  the  house  is  sometimes 
determined  merely  by  its  relation  to  exceptional  topographic  opportunities  for 
those  features  which  must  adjoin  it.  In  such  cases,  the  site  for  the  house 

-  itself  is  not  at  first  so  evident  as  are  the  situations  adapted  to  the  various  out 
door  features;  but  houses  so  located  are  admirably  placed  to  enjoy  the  grounds 

1  about  them,  and  plans  thus  evolved  are  likely  to  be  inexpensive  and  interesting. 

In  the  examination  of  a  lot  it  matters  but  little  what  one  sees  first  or  last,  but 

;  sooner  or  later  it  is  essential  that  one  find  the  situations  possible  for  a  house  and 
for  lawns,  gardens,  roads,  and  the  like;  and  he  must  decide  on  these  not  as  un- 
related features,  but  in  relation  to  his  conception  of  an  entire  plan.  Further, 


one  must  recognize  when  it  is  better  and  less  expensive  to  sacrifice  one  feature, 
in  order  to  take  advantage  of  good  opportunities  for  several  other  or  more  im- 
portant features.  One  is  not  likely  to  find  lots  which  are  capable  of  absolutely 
satisfactory  development.  To  observe  irregular  land  and  to  visualize  possible 
plans  for  it  which  are  in  the  main  correct  and  which  are  a  sufficient  basis  for  a 
judg  ment  of  the  land's  value,  is  indeed  difficult.  Nevertheless,  everyone  should 
cult'vate  a  better  understanding  of  planning  lots,  especially  irregular  ones,  for 
residences,  as  the  advantages  are  obvious. 

In  the  study  of  planning  flat  lots,  one  may  possibly  have  formed  some  opinion 
concerning  the  relation  of  the  main  indoor  and  outdoor  features  and  of  a  reason- 
able apportionment  of  the  area  of  the  lot.  Plans  for  lots  irregular  in  outline  are 
not  likely  to  require  any  material  change  from  the  diagrammatic  scheme  for  the 
main  features  already  mentioned,  and  must  not  if  the  plans  are  to  be  convenient. 
The  outlines  of  the  several  areas  may  be  less  regular  than  those  in  the  average 
city  lot,  but  the  amount  of  space  allotted  to  each  feature  is  of  greater  importance 
than  is  its  outline;  and,  as  was  the  case  in  the  simple  examples,  the  position  of 
the  house  is  the  most  important  factor  in  the  allotment  of  space.  Lots  of  ir- 
regular outline,  or  of  very  irregular  topography,  may  require  that  the  house  be 
turned  out  of  parallel  with  the  street,  in  order  to  meet  the  conditions  of  the  lot. 
If  a  building  line  must  also  be  taken  into  consideration,  the  house  plan  itself  may 
sometimes  be  slightly  altered  in  order  to  conform  in  a  measure  to  the  street  and 
to  the  angles  of  the  outline  of  the  lot.  In  very  rough  land,  however,  building 
lines  are  not  likely  to  be  closely  adhered  to,  and  houses  located  and  planned  pri- 
marily with  respect  to  conditions  on  their  own  lots,  look  best  from  the  street 
also. 

Then,  adhering  still  to  our  concept  of  an  arrangement  essential  for  principal 
features,  perhaps  it  may  be  further  conceded  that  a  more  picturesque  scheme  is 
both  practical  and  pleasing  for  irregular  ground.  A  variation  in  levels,  however, 
involves  many  practical  difficulties,  as  well  as  charming  possibilities.  One  must 
plan  for  the  accessibility  of  an  assumed  house  site  to  the  public  road,  by  a  drive- 
way and  walks.  The  area  suitable  for  service  must  be  accessible  in  both  its  posi- 
tion and  its  elevation.  Pleasure  grounds,  as  well  as  porches  and  terraces,  to  be 
most  satisfactory,  should  be,  at  least  in  part,  on  a  level  very  near  to  that  of  the 
main  floor  of  the  house,  although  by  careful  attention  to  drainage,  gardens  may 
be  both  convenient  and  interesting  on  levels  slightly  above,  as  well  as  a  little  be- 
low, that  of  the  first  floor.  In  their  extensions,  however,  gardens  may  occupy  a 
slope  rising  considerably  above  the  first-floor  level.  In  this  relation  to  the  house, 
the  pleasure  ground  is  more  plainly  in  view  from  the  house  than  if  it  were  a  down- 
ward slope.  Lawns,  as  well  as  some  parts  of  the  service  area,  may,  if  necessary, 
be  less  accessible  in  respect  to  elevation.  While  unquestionably  a  lawn  will  be 
more  used  if  the  number  of  steps  leading  to  it  is  not  great,  still,  if  the  topography 
adjoining  the  house  affords  an  ample  area  which  is  comparatively  flat,  a  satis- 
factory lawn  may  be  made,  even  at  a  considerably  lower  level,  and  still  afford  the 
house  a  pleasant  outlook.  The  area  for  a  garden  is  usually  much  smaller  than 
that  required  for  a  lawn,  and  therefore  it  is  more  economical  to  adapt  the  plan 
to  an  area  already  suitable  for  a  lawn,  even  if  this  requires  considerable  cutting 
or  filling  of  the  garden.  Thus  one  must  know  the  requirements  for  each  feature 
in  respect  to  conformation,  size,  and  relative  position,  and  the  methods  and  costs 


of  necessary  improvement  operations,  and  must  weigh  all  these  factors  before  he 
can  form  even  visionary  plans  for  a  lot  or  can  reach  an  opinion  as  to  its  possi- 
bilities. 

The  planning  of  irregular  land  may  be  still  further  complicated  by  the  trees 
which  may  happen  to  be  growing  upon  it.  To  design  a  house  cleverly  in  relation 
to  existing  mature  trees  is  to  obtain  at  the  start  the  effect  of  years.  Trees  near 
the  site  chosen  for  the  house  should  therefore  be  taken  into  consideration  by  the 
designer  of  the  house,  and  should  be  included  with  it  in  the  composition  of  the 
picture.  But  as  they  cannot  be  greatly  changed  in  form  by  trimming,  and  usu- 
ally cannot  be  moved,  nor  have  the  conditions  about  their  roots  materially 
altered,  both  patience  and  skill  are  necessary  to  adapt  plans  to  them.  If  house 
plans  or  plans  for  the  grounds  are  drawn  without  regard  for  existing  trees,  a  far 
greater  number  than  is  actually  necessary  will  have  to  be  cut  down  and  lost; 
and,  further,  those  which  remain,  having  no  studied  relation  to  the  house,  the 
gardens  or  the  other  features,  will  neither  gain  from,  nor  contribute  beauty  to, 
the  scheme. 

Old  trees  are  distinctly  an  asset,  and  therefore  one  usually  pays  more  for  a  lot 
on  which  there  are  good  trees.  Not  to  use  them  is  of  course  only  to  waste  that 
for  which  one  has  already  paid.  But  to  save  a  sufficient  number  of  them  to  afford 
satisfactory  shade  is  really  good  only  if  one  has  so  drawn  his  plans  as  to  achieve 
the  effect  of  the  trees  having  been  planned  for  just  those  spots  where  they  are 
growing;  and,  only  thus  can  existing  tree  growth  be  capitalized  to  its  fullest  ex- 
tent. Of  course  one  kind  of  a  tree  is  suited  for  one  position  and  another  best 
fitted  for  other  effects,  and  also  an  incidental  or  picturesque  arrangement  of 
trees  is  frequently  better  than  a  stiffly  symmetrical  arrangement.  Therefore 
considerable  artistic  ability  or  appreciation  is  required  to  adapt  a  plan  to  old 
trees  or  to  seled  and  to  locate  young  trees  in  distinctive  positions  where  they 
will  someday  grow  to  produce  the  desired  effects. 

Old  shrubs,  either  native  or  cultivated,  can  be  moved  more  easily  and  safely 
than  can  trees.  Still,  a  year  or  more  will  be  necessary  for  shrubs  so  moved  to 
regain  their  original  thrifty  growth.  Shrubs  are  not  so  easily  injured  by  cutting 
about  their  roots  as  are  trees,  but  this  information  should  not  lead  one  to  treat 
them  carelessly.  All  existing  conditions  should  be  capitalized.  In  fact,  even 
existing  structures  may  at  times  be  utilized  with  little  repair  or  addition.  The 
cost  nowadays  of  such  accessory  structures,  as  summerhouses,  arbors,  and  the 
like,  is  so  excessive  that  their  value  seldom  seems  to  justify  them.  Unquestion- 
ably, however,  they  add  greatly  to  the  appearance  and  pleasurable  use  of  the 
yard.  Rocky  outcrops  may  be  used  very  effectively  for  picturesque  effects,  and 
of  course  lend  themselves  especially  to  naturalistic  gardening.  Occurring  near 
the  house,  they  may  likewise  be  combined  very  effectively  with  conventional 
features.  One  should  make  a  careful  survey  of  all  vegetation,  topographic  details, 
old  foundations  or  structures,  and  the  like,  with  a  view  to  their  possible  use  or 
adaptation. 

In  planning  for  space  on  uneven  ground,  one  should  recognize  fully  the  real 
usefulness  of  both  level  and  sloping  ground,  as  well  as  the  appearances  resulting 
from  their  proper  and  improper  adaptation.  Usually,  the  area  assigned  to  a  single 
purpose  looks  larger  and  affords  more  available  space  for  practical  purposes  if  it 
is  comparatively  level.  For  example,  a  lawn  broken  into  several  levels  by  ter- 


races,  or  one  made  on  a  steep  slope,  appears  smaller  than  an  area  of  the  same  size 
which  is  in  one  level  and  unbroken  sweep;  a  turncourt  on  more  than  a  slight 
grade  requires  a  radius  larger  than  that  ordinarily  used,  to  eliminate  the  danger  of 
cars  skidding  at  these  places ;  and  terraced  vegetable  gardens  have  only  their  level 
areas  available  for  use.  Terraces  resulting  from  the  leveling  required  for  lawns, 
turncourts,  and  the  like  may  support  the  planting  necessary  to  enclose  and  sep- 
arate the  various  features  on  the  different  levels,  thus  wasting  no  space.  Pleasure 
gardens  do  not  demand  extensive  levels,  and  therefore  these  may  be  adapted  to 
almost  any  form  of  topography. 

A  slightly  hollowed  (concave)  grade  is  the  most  pleasing  one  for  a  lawn;  and 
if  the  area  is  large,  gradually  steepening  slopes  may,  with  excellent  effect,  mount 
at  the  borders  to  marked  differences  in  level.  Lawns  necessarily  made  on  slopes 
for  a  greater  part  of  their  area  are  in  effect  more  pleasing,  and  appear  more  nearly 
level,  if  the  lowest  ground  is  not  at  their  borders.  To  avoid  this  condition  it  is 
even  better  to  steepen  a  part  of  the  slope,  in  order  to  obtain  a  little  flat  ground, 
and  perhaps  even  a  slight  rise,  before  the  borders  are  reached.  For  very  conven- 
tional effects,  lawns  should  be  quite  flat;  but  if  picturesque  effects  are  desired, 
a  varied  but  generally  concave  lawn  surface  is  preferable.  The  outstanding  feat- 
ures of  a  lawn  are  its  extent  and  the  unbroken  sweep  of  its  surface.  Hence  it  is 
plain  to  be  seen  that  the  part  of  the  lot  selected  for  this  purpose  should  have 
suitable  topography. 

Gardens  also  appear  larger  if  all  on  the  same  level.  But  gardens  for  small 
homes  do  not,  as  a  rule,  need  to  appear  extensive  in  order  to  look  well.  And 
however  broken  the  garden  surface  may  be,  even  it  if  consists  of  a  series  of  steep 
terraces,  as  long  as  the  dimensions  of  its  details  are  not  unreasonably  small,  the 
scale  will  not  be  petty  and  the  terraced  garden  will  be  pleasing.  As  a  rule,  gardens 
need  diversity,  both  in  level  and  in  plan;  and  distinct  differences  in  levels  afford 
opportunity  for  such  decorative  details  as  steps  and  walls  in  addition  to  the  usual 
garden  features,  which,  in  turn,  seen  from  different  elevations  multiply  the  pleas- 
ing aspects  of  the  garden.  Of  course,  the  character  of  the  garden  area  immediately 
adjoining  the  house  needs  to  be  more  roomlike  in  order  to  be  a  proper  adjunct 
to  the  living  room.  Beyond  this  area  immediately  adjoining  the  house,  however, 
the  gardens  may  consist  of  naturalistic  or  conventional  effects  on  rising  or  falling 
grades,  preferably  taking  advantage  of  existing  conditions;  but  they  must  be 
congruous  parts  of  the  whole.  On  rough  and  irregular  terrain,  unavoidable 
remnants  of  ground  may  almost  always  be  adapted  to  some  interesting  architec- 
tural or  gardenlike  feature. 

One  is  less  apt  to  realize  or  to  concern  himself  with  the  requirements  or  the 
opportunities  in  the  more  distant  parts  of  the  yard  than  he  is  with  the  practical 
aspects  of  entrance  facilities  and  with  the  appearance  of  his  house  from  the  street. 
Many  persons  balk  at  the  suggestion  of  locating  a  house  on  a  level  which  is  con- 
siderably higher  or  much  lower  than  that  of  the  street.  As  was  stated  in  chapters 
II  and  III,  the  function  of  the  front  yard  is  that  of  furnishing  an  appropriate 
foreground  to  the  house,  together  with  entrance  facilities.  Nevertheless,  unusual 
or  difficult  conditions  are  not  in  themselves  a  sufficient  reason  for  not  making 
practical  and  interesting  entrance  drives  and  arranging  for  the  satisfactory  ap- 
pearance of  the  house  from  the  street.  Similar  topographic  conditions  will  usu- 
ally prevail  along  a  street  and  even  throughout  a  neighborhood.  Occurring  thus, 


6 

or  even  on  a  single  lot,  such  conditions  are  a  visible  reason  for  an  unusual  plan, 
and  if  plans  employ  clever  rather  than  awkward  methods  and  details,  the  effects 
may  be  indeed  pleasing.  For  this  statement  there  is  ample  proof  in  well-done 
examples.  Drives  may  have  to  resort  to  profiles  which  do  not  conform  to  the 
grades  of  the  lawn;  they  may  have  to  cross  the  lawn,  or  even  to  receive  other 
treatment  than  that  or  dinar  ly  used,  and,  in  fact,  quite  contrary  to  the  prin- 
ciples previously  set  forth.  But  the  houses  and  the  drives  will  both  look  well 
and  be  practical,  if  the  conditions  of  any  particular  situation  are  cleverly  met 
and  if  the  result  is  apparently  intentional  rather  than  haphazard. 

The  entrance  problem  is  a  very  important  one,  and  in  the  examination  of  a  lot, 
if  there  are  apparent  reasons  for  doubting  the  possibility  of  a  satisfactory  entrance, 
this  question  should  be  decided  before  any  further  consideration  is  given  to  the 
lot.  A  close  observation  of  the  conditions  may  be  sufficient,  or  some  information 
as  to  the  actual  elevations  may  be  necessary.  At  least  one  should  visualize  a  plan 
for  drives  and  be  reasonably  certain  of  its  practicability,  before  he  seriously  con- 
siders purchasing  the  property.  It  is  possible  to  make  foot  approaches  of  a  satis- 
factory nature  over  topographic  conditions  that  will  by  no  means  permit  a  good 
road,  and  therefore  less  thought  need  be  given  to  this  matter.  In  order  to  obviate 
the  necessity  for  a  drive,  garages  may  sometimes  be  recessed  in  a  bank  rising  steep- 
ly from  the  street,  and  though  opening  directly  on  the  sidewalk,  may  be  made 
not  unattractive  by  means  of  heavy  planting  about  them.  Still,  garages  so  lo- 
cated may  as  well  be  on  a  nearby  lot,  as  far  as  the  convenience  to  the  owner  is 
concerned,  since  a  long,  steep  foot  approach  is  usually  the  only  connection  with 
the  house,  and  this  is  both  undesirable  for  a  main  entrance  and  expensive  for  ser- 
vice. Under  some  conditions,  however,  it  may  be  possible  to  locate  the  house 
directly  on  the  street  line  and  to  make  the  garage  merely  a  part  of  its  basement. 
This  arrangement  would,  of  course,  permit  of  a  stairway  connecting  the  garage 
directly  with  the  main  portion  of  the  house.  However  it  would  be  an  exceptional 
condition  indeed  that  would  justify  such  a  scheme,  and  other  plans  are  more  likely 
to  be  preferable. 

Drives  may  be  made  to  enter  at  one  side  of  a  front  yard,  to  turn  and  climb  the 
slope  across  the  width  of  the  lawn,  and  to  turn  again  when  the  other  side  is  reached, 
thence  passing  in  the  usual  manner  between  the  house  and  the  side  property  line 
to  the  garage.  In  such  cases,  the  drive  should  cross  the  lawn  at  a  level  sufficiently 
below  the  house  to  be  practically  out  of  sight  therefrom.  The  steeply  sloping 
ground  may  be  attractively  planted,  and  if  desirable  the  drive  may  be  thus  quite 
hidden  from  either  the  house  or  the  street.  Heavy  planting  on  the  steep  grade 
may  in  appearance  serve  to  give  the  house  more  support ;  and  if  much  of  the  front 
area  is  covered  with  suitable  varieties  of  woody  plants,  the  abruptness  of  the 
grade  may  thus  be  made  less  evident.  Drives  may  enter  lots  considerably  below  the 
street  by  a  reversal  of  these  devices.  When  this  is  done,  it  is  best  to  have  the  slope 
nearest  the  sidewalk  the  steepest  and  to  make  for  all  possible  width  in  level  directly 
in  front  of  the  house.  Sometimes  it  may  seem  best  to  approach  a  house  high  above 
.the  street  by  means  of  a  deep  cut,  the  retaining  walls  or  the  abrupt  slopes  on  either 
side  serving,  with  the  aid  of  heavy  planting,  to  render  it  less  noticeable.  A  main 
drive  of  this  kind  may  be  made  to  afford  a  very  private  and  enclosed  entrance, 
and  if  used  as  a  service  drive,  it  may  be  almost  completely  hidden.  Of  course, 
in  sections  where  heavy  snows  are  prevalent,  such  a  drive  may  not  always  be 


serviceable  in  winter.  It  is  not  possible  to  describe  methods  suitable  for  all  situ- 
ations, however,  as  the  limiting  circumstances  in  each  case  may  necessarily  make 
the  exception  the  rule. 

Foot  approaches  may  be  adapted  to  almost  any  situation,  and  to  be  practical, 
interesting,  and  even  decorative,  require  only  some  ingenuity  for  their  design. 
Steps,  walls,  and  possibly  the  use  of  suitable  planting,  may  make  these  entrance 
walks  more  expensive  than  those  for  comparatively  level  front  yards,  but  other 
economic  advantages  of  the  irregular  over  the  level  lot  may  justify  this  labor  and 
expense.  As  a  rule,  walks  should  preferably  follow  the  line  of  the  drive.  If  the 
drive  is  well-made  and  smoothly  paved,  it  may  serve  both  as  a  drive  and  as  a 
walk.  If  the  front  space  is  clear  and  open,  and  if  there  are  no  obstructions  to 
any  plan  for  the  walks,  these  are  usually  best  made  to  start  from  the  street  at 
one  or  both  corners  of  the  lot  and  to  approach  the  house  on  a  curving  line  of 
which  the  steeper  part  is  near  the  street,  thus  permitting  a  more  gradual  ap- 
proach near  the  house.  This  suggestion  if,  in  accordance  with  the  general  prin- 
ciple of  having  a  reasonable  amount  of  comparatively  level  ground  immediately 
surrounding  the  house,  whatever  may  be  its  elevation  with  respect  to  the  street. 
There  are  few  situations  indeed  which  will  not  permit  a  satisfactory  setting  for 
the  house  far  below  the  public  road  if  the  slope  does  not  crowd  too  closely  toward 
the  front  of  the  building,  and  this,  too,  quite  regardless  of  the  necessity  for  walls  or 
for  steep  slopes  adjoining  the  sidewalk. 

While  it  is  hardly  safe  to  attempt  generalizations  for  examples  of  so  variable 
a  nature,  it  is  thought  that  low-lying  land  is  more  easily  made  into  interesting 
yards  than  is  very  high  ground,  providing  of  course,  that  good  drainage  is  possible. 
However,  a  high  situation  is  usually  a  commanding  one,  and  may  afford  more  out- 
look than  does  the  low-lying  property.  In  a  city,  however,  distant  outlooks  are 
not  always  interesting  and  may  even  be  unsightly.  If  one's  yard  is  higher  than 
the  adjoining  lots  its  enclosure  is  difficult,  as  the  ground  at  the  borders  is  likely 
to  be  lower  than  that  about  the  house;  and  this  necessitates  the  planting  of  larger 
trees  and  shrubs  at  the  start  or  a  long  wait  for  them  to  grow  before  they  can  be 
very  effective.  High  situations,  again,  are  usually  exposed  and  dry,  and  therefore 
difficult  ones  in  which  to  grow  any  but  the  most  hardy  plants.  More  enclosure 
is  therefore  necessary  for  success  with  the  average  assortment  of  plants,  and  also 
more  soil  preparation  is  required.  Furthermore,  without  the  appearance  of  suffi- 
cient protection,  it  is  impossible  to  achieve  an  attractive  and  homelike  atmosphere 
of  privacy.  Still,  there  are  advantages  and  disadvantages  to  be  considered  in  all 
situations,  resulting  from  their  relatively  high  or  low  elevations,  and  at  the  start, 
when  one  is  choosing  a  site,  is  the  time  to  weigh  these  as  well  as  other  possibilities. 

Whatever  plan  may  be  conceived  for  an  irregular  lot,  practical  convenience 
must  be  served;  and  the  essential  function  of  each  feature  must  be  borne  in  mind 
when  it  is  assigned  to  any  particular  topographical  conformation.  The  contour 
of  any  part  of  the  land  should  be  suitable  for  any  feature  intended  for  it,  and  the 
position  of  that  feature  on  the  lot  and  in  the  plan  should  be  determined  chiefly 
by  its  use.  The  relative  levels  of  various  features  should  not  interfere  with  their 
use,  but  should  rather  contribute  to  their  attractiveness.  Speaking  more  in 
detail,  trees  and  minor  irregularities  of  the  land  should  suggest  the  detailed  de- 
sign for  each  feature.  If  a  lot  consists  of  several  comparatively  level  areas 
separated  by  steeply  sloping  ground,  so  far  as  possible  the  more  important  or 


8 

larger  elements  should  be  placed  in  these  level  areas,  while  the  slopes  between 
them  are  accepted  as  the  natural  lines  of  subdivision  within  the  lot,  possibly  to  be 
planted.  From  this  it  is  evident  that  the  straight  lines  usually  demarking  the 
subdivision  of  areas  on  flat  lots  are  not  always  suitable  to  uneven  ground.  Straight 
lines  and  regularly  shaped  areas  are  unquestionably  more  economical  of  space. 
But  in  so  far  as  the  requirements  of  the  several  features  permit,  it  is  more  import- 
ant to  economize  in  grading,  and  to  so  bend  one's  conception  of  the  essential  ar- 
rangement for  the  main  elements,  that  it  may  fit  gracefully  with  the  less  conven- 
tional conditions. 

Principles  and  conventions  are  good  things  when  intelligently  applied,  and  flexi- 
bility of  opinion  is  apt  to  be  an  indication  of  greater  understanding.  In  order  to 
develop  a  point  of  view  for  the  planning  of  land  of  marked  irregularity,  one  must 
start  with  a  clear  conception  of  the  fundamental  requirements  for  a  residence 
property,  as  exemplified  in  the  simplest  form  on  small  flat  lots  of  regular  outline. 
The  functions  of  each  element,  together  with  its  relation  to  the  other  elements, 
must  be  thoroughly  understood.  Persistent  observation  and  analysis  of  examples, 
wherever  they  are  to  be  found,  will  broaden  one's  conception  of  these  essential 
features.  It  is  easy  to  criticise,  and  criticism  not  too  hasty  will  sometimes  dis- 
close mistakes  and  perhaps  suggest  better  details.  The  study  of  many  examples 
and  the  gathering  of  a  vocabulary  of  details  may  develop  one's  ability  to  visualize 
plans.  However,  rigidity  of  opinion  in  one's  own  conception  of  a  plan  for  a  home, 
or  a  similar  tenacity  in  respect  to  the  plans  advocated  for  flat,  rectangular  lots 
in  the  foregoing  chapters,  is  indicative  of  little  understanding  of  fundamental 
principles  and  of  a  narrow  experience.  One  must  construct  a  background  of 
understanding  before  he  can  trust  himself  to  be  flexible  in  his  opinions,  and  he 
must  have  ideas  before  he  can  visualize  plans. 

There  are  some  details  concerning  the  shaping  of  surfaces  and  the  resulting 
effects,  which  apply  generally  to  all  conditions,  and  these  will  be  briefly  explained 
at  this  time  in  order  that  they  may  perhaps  further  clarify  the  foregoing  explana- 
tions of  this  chapter.  Usually  a  house  is  built  on  an  elevation,  or  with  respect 
to  an  elevation,  called  the  ground  line,  which  is  a  level  slightly  above  that  of  the 
sidewalk  in  front  of  the  house.  This  arrangement  looks  well  partly  because  it  is 
customary  and  partly  because  it  is  practical  for  drainage  and  affords  the  house  a 
good  setting  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  street.  Hence  this  customary  relation 
of  the  front  with  respect  to  other  elevations  must  be  the  starting  point  for  any 
proposed  exceptions. 

When  houses  stand  slightly  higher  or  lower  than  is  desirable,  suitable  compen- 
sation may  be  made  by  skillful  grading  of  the  front  area.  This  area  may  be 
excavated  to  make  for  a  slight  degree  of  concavity  whose  lowest  part  will  be 
from  two-thirds  to  three-quarters  of  the  distance  from  the  sidewalk  to  the  house, 
thus  resulting  in  a  decidedly  steeper  slope  immediately  approaching  the  house 
than  near  the  street.  By  this  device  the  house  can  be  made  to  appear,  from  the 
street,  about  as  high  above  it  as  it  is  above  the  low  part  of  the  lawn.  Hence 
it  may  be  assumed  that  if,  in  the  profile  between  a  point  of  view  and  a  terminal, 
the  gradient  breaks  at  a  point  nearer  the  terminal  and  from  thence  rises  at  a 
steeper  gradient,  the  resulting  effect  will  be  that  the  terminal  appears  higher  than 
it  actually  is.  The  longer  segment  may  slope  downward,  may  be  level,  or  may 
slope  upward,  but  as  long  as  the  shorter  segment  is  noticeably  steeper,  the  effect 


9 

remains  the  same,  differing  only  in  degree  according  to  the  circumstances.  If 
this  scheme  of  concave  grading  is  applied  to  a  front  lawn,  the  lawn  should  conform 
to  the  same  profile  for  a  width  greater  than  that  of  the  house,  if  not  of  the  entire 
lawn;  but  as  the  borders  are  reached,  the  grades  may  be  gradually  merged  into 
the  conditions  on  adjoining  lots.  Perhaps  it  is  safe  to  say,  by  way  of  a  specific 
example,  that  a  house  standing  forty  feet  distant  from  a  street  and  on  a  level 
with  the  sidewalk,  may  be  made  to  appear  somewhat  above  the  sidewalk  level  if, 
for  a  distance  of  twenty-five  feet,  the  grade  slopes  downward  not  more  than 
six  to  eight  inches,  is  comparatively  flat  for  about  five  feet,  and  then  rises 
evenly  to  the  original  level  of  the  house  front.  With  a  greater  distance,  of  course, 
these  proportions  may  be  exaggerated  to  produce  the  same  effect.  The  slope 
downward  cannot  be  noticeable,  however,  without  disclosing  the  deception,  at 
least  to  a  degree. 

When  the  house  stands  considerably  below  the  level  of  the  street,  a  concave 
profile  is  usually  desirable.  This  conformation  makes  for  more  spaciousness  in 
front  of  the  building,  and  also  affords  it  good  drainage,  as  well  as  a  slightly  ele- 
vated platform  on  which  to  stand.  Under  these  circumstances  the  house  is  sure 
to  appear  at  a  higher  elevation  than  it  actually  is.  Further,  if  the  situation  calls 
for  conventionality,  this  effect  may  be  increased  by  the  construction  of  a  formal 
terrace  at  the  low  point,  thus  making  a  still  steeper  slope  to  contrast  with  that  of 
the  gradual  segment.  By  this  scheme,  the  ground  between  the  top  of  the  terrace 
and  the  face  of  the  house  can  be  apparently  level.  In  all  cases  the  ground  should 
slope  away  from  the  house  sufficiently  to  insure  satisfactory  drainage.  Walls 
and  steps  substituted  for  formal  terraces  about  houses  produce  similar  effects 
with  respect  to  elevations.  Furthermore,  it  should  be  pointed  out  that  the  ter- 
minals of  a  concave  profile  are  not  only  in  effect  raised,  but  also  appear  to  recede. 
Thus  a  house  with  its  front  lawn  graded  in  this  particular  form  of  concavity  will 
appear  not  only  higher  than  it  is,  but  also  farther  back  from  the  street.  Looking 
from  the  house  toward  the  street,  if  the  concavity  is  but  slight,  there  will  be  no 
noticeable  difference;  but  in  case  of  marked  differences  in  level,  there  will  be 
some  foreshortening. 

While  a  concave  lawn  is  pleasing  in  itself,  quite  irrespective  of  the  effects  it 
produces,  for  a  house  already  sufficiently  high  above  the  street  an  even  slope 
from  the  sidewalk  to  the  house,  becoming  slightly  more  level  as  it  approaches 
thereto,  should  be  adopted.  The  slope  from  the  sidewalk  to  the  house  should, 
in  most  cases,  be  from  2^/2  to  3  percent,  and  in  the  case  of  slopes  which  are  one 
or  two  feet  in  excess  of  this,  a  filling  of  the  lawn  to  produce  a  convex  profile  with 
the  major  part  of  its  slope  at  the  front  line  will  restore  the  normal  appearance. 
A  convex  profile  generally  tends  to  lower  the  terminal,  and  the  greater  part  of  the 
steepness  resulting  must  usually  be  nearest  the  point  of  view,  thus  in  some  cases 
requiring  steps.  This  modeling  is  not  a  very  pleasing  one,  however,  although  very 
common.  Further,  it  tends  to  foreshorten  in  a  reverse  direction  from  that  of 
concave  profiles.  Houses  standing  at  an  elevation  very  high  above  the  street, 
however,  have  no  alternative  but  to  adopt  this  form  of  grading.  Excessively  steep 
embankments  may  sometimes  be  planted  in  a  manner  to  soften  the  effect  and  even 
to  make  the  abruptness  less  noticeable.  Usually  medium  and  low-growing  shrubs 
are  combined  with  species  of  vines,  which  all  grow  together  and  form  an  unbroken 


10 

and  undulating  contour.  For  special  effects,  of  course,  other  combinations  are 
necessary. 

Lawns  to  the  rear  or  at  the  side  of  a  house  usually  look  best  in  a  modeling  which 
is  generally  concave.  This  contour,  in  contrast  to  convex  modeling,  tends  to 
increase  the  apparent  size  of  these  areas.  The  motif  of  a  lawn  is  an  open  center 
with  solid  boundaries,  and  its  spaciousness  may  be  accentuated  by  means  of  a 
concave  modeling.  Applying  the  principles  of  concave  modeling  just  explained, 
if  the  low  part  of  a  lawn  is  made  nearer  to  the  far  boundaries  than  to  the  house, 
the  effect  of  apparently  greater  depth  is  produced.  The  rear  lawns  adjoining 
small  city  or  suburban  houses  may  be  given  a  slight  degree  of  concavity  by  little 
or  no  actual  hollowing  of  the  grades,  but  rather  by  filling  to  raise  the  borders 
about  a  foot  or  perhaps  slightly  less.  Even  this  slight  degree  of  concavity  is 
effective  and  pleasing. 

There  are  other  details  pertaining  to  grading  which  contribute  greatly  toward 
practical  construction  and  toward  finished  appearances.  Grass  slopes  or  terraces, 
if  not  conventional,  should,  in  most  cases,  have  what  is  called  an  "O  G  profile," 
— that  is,  a  reverse  curve;  and  the  radius  of  curvature  at  the  top  should  be  less, 
while  that  at  the  base  of  the  slope  should  be  greater.  This  curvature  affords 
stability  and  is  by  far  the  best  detail  for  what  is  commonly  known  as  an 
"informal  slope.'  The  per  cent  of  slope  should  preferably  not  average  nore  than 
one  foot  of  rise  to  two  feet  of  width.  When  steps  are  built  into  a  terrace,  the 
slanting  surface  of  the  terrace  should  conform  to  the  ratio  of  the  step  s.  Steeper 
embankments  are  of  course  necessary  at  times,  and  usually  these  are  densely 
planted  with  vegetation  that  will  prevent  washing.  Formal  terraces  should 
comply  with  the  suggestions  just  mentioned  as  appropriate  to  the  percentage 
of  slope.  Grass  ramps  used  in  place  of  steps  to  connect  different  levels  are  usually 
made  as  a  formal  terrace,  but  in  a  ratio  of  one  foot  of  rise  to  eight  feet  of  width. 
This  feature  serves  to  draw  more  closely  together  the  levels  so  connected,  and  pos- 
sesses the  advantage  of  greater  simplicity.  Ramps  may  be  either  conventionalized 
or  treated  in  an  informal  way. 

Walls  can  be  used  between  different  levels,  and  while  the  expense  of  construct- 
ing them  is  greater  than  for  terracing,  they  occupy  less  space.  In  many  instances 
"dry  masonry"  may  be  employed  in  the  walls.  This  is  less  expensive  than  solid 
masonry  laid  in  cement,  and  requires  less  foundationing.  Dry  walls,  to  be  stable, 
must  usually  be  laid  to  considerable  "batter,"  and  cannot  be  as  narrow  as  are 
walls  of  cemented  masonry.  The  character  of  each  type  of  wall  is  quite  different, 
and  one  should  not  determine  on  one  or  another  from  a  consideration  of  cost  alone. 
If  walls  are  employed,  very  likely  steps  will  also  be  needed,  and  this  question  should 
be  studied  carefully.  In  the  first  place,  one  should  realize  that  the  ratios  satis- 
factory for  indoor  stairs  will  not  prove  equally  good  about  the  garden,  in  the  en- 
trance walk,  or  even  at  the  porches  and  the  doorways.  The  conditions  affecting 
steps  out-of-doors  are  entirely  different  from  those  inside  the  house.  Most  out- 
of-doors  steps  have  a  decorative  value  as  well  as  a  practical  one ;  they  usually  occur 
in  short  rather  than  long  flights,  and  they  are  wider,  and  rarely  is  there  a  ramp 
or  a  hand  rail  within  reach  for  support.  As  a  rule  a  good  ratio  for  out-of-door  steps 
is  six  inches  rise  to  fourteen  inches  tread,  with  perhaps  a  quarter  of  an  inch  "wash" 
allowed  on  each  tread.  If  one  wishes  to  express  a  very  close  relation  between  two 
levels  in  a  garden  or  between  terraces  and  gardens,  the  same  rise  may  be  used 


11 

with  a  tread  an  inch  or  two  wider,  but  if  the  rise  is  made  an  inch  less,  then  three 
or  four  inches  should  be  added  to  the  tread.  Very  easy  ratios  are  best  adapted 
to  short  flights  of  perhaps  only  three  steps.  Of  course  if  longer  flights  are  neces- 
sary, these  may  be  effectively  interrupted  by  landings,  thus  permitting  the  use  of 
the  easy  ratios  with  the  assurance  of  satisfactory  results.  In  addition  to  practical 
considerations,  both  steps  and  walls  should  receive  some  thought  concerning  their 
decorative  aspect.  Little  or  no  additional  cost  will  be  necessary  in  order  to  make 
these  details  somewhat  decorative  and  suitable  for  homes  not  of  an  unduly  ex- 
pensive or  elaborate  nature,  and  the  necessity  of  this  decorative  requirement  is 
most  plainly  realized  when  it  is  wanting.  It  should  be  noted  that  walls  and  steps 
mark  differences  in  level  more  noticeably  than  do  turf  slopes,  and  these  details 
should  be  chosen  according  to  the  effect  desired.  The  designing  of  suitable 
architectural  details  requires  experience  and  taste,  together  with  a  realization  of 
their  importance. 

The  drainage  problems  incidental  to  irregular  lots  are  very  important,  although 
usually  they  may  be  satisfactorily  handled  in  a  simple  way  and  by  means  which 
are  both  inexpensive  and  self-maintaining.  As  the  grades  are  determined  in  the 
vicinity  of  the  house,  the  surfaces  should  be  so  moulded  as  to  carry  rain  water 
away  from  the  base  of  a  building,  and  if  natural  drainage  does  not  produce  this 
result,  catchbasins  or  other  artificial  means  will  be  necessary.  Usually,  by  the 
introduction  of  imperceptible  slopes  in  conventional  features,  and  by  slight  de- 
pressions along  the  edges  of  lawns  and  outlying  areas,  the  water  may  be  led  away 
into  the  plantations  or  into  depressions  where  it  will  gradually  seep  out  of  sight 
and  follow  the  underground  course  of  what  was  originally  its  natural  drainage. 
If  the  surface  of  each  area  can  be  drained  separately,  no  great  volume  of  water 
will  collect  at  any  one  point,  and  thus  there  will  be  no  resultant  erosion  nor  any 
need  of  catchbasins  and  drains.  Low-lying  areas  that  are  likely  to  receive  the 
surface  flow  from  adjoining  properties  should  be  carefully  examined  to  ascertain 
whether  there  will  be  any  danger  at  flood  times,  and  also  whether  there  is  ample 
drainage  by  some  means  of  which  the  rights  are  protected.  A  lot  with  very  porous 
subsoil  can  have  dry  wells  located  at  several  low  points,  and  thus  providing  a  good 
drain  which  requires  no  future  attention  and  is  very  inexpensive  to  construct. 
In  soils  which  incline  to  imperviousness,  these  wells  should  either  be  made  very 
large,  or  else  not  used  at  all.  If  the  drainage  question  cannot  be  easily  solved, 
one  should  realize  that  his  best  economy  is  the  purchase  of  some  expert  advice. 

The  reader  may  not  find  this  discussion  of  details  especially  interesting,  since 
it  is  more  than  possible  that  he  has  not  observed  these  things  with  an  eye  sufficient- 
ly professional  to  appreciate  their  purpose.  Discussions  of  this  nature  are  little 
more  than  meaningless  if  they  do  not  recall  actual  examples,  and  for  a  certainty 
they  are  abstract  without  illustration.  The  purpose  of  this  chapter  is  not  to 
teach  the  reader  how  to  design  and  to  carry  out  plans  for  irregular  lots,  but  is  rather 
intended  to  convince  him  of  their  possibilities  for  development  and  to  stimulate 
his  interest  and  his  observation.  Ordinarily  all  these  questions  are  left  to  the  build- 
er, whose  point  of  view  is  usually  that  the  best  site  for  a  house  is  that  which  it  is 
easiest  and  cheapest  to  build, — necessitating  the  least  excavation  for  the  cellar  and 
the  least  trouble  in  making  foundations.  He  gives  no  thought  to  questions  of 
appearances  beyond  the  walls  of  the  building.  When  he  has  finished,  however, 
the  owner  alone  is  left  to  face  the  problems,  and  also  the  bills,  for  his  mistakes. 


12 

This  is  but  a  "penny  wise  and  pound  foolish  policy."  The  wisdom  of  engaging 
the  advice  of  a  professional  man,  when  an  investment  is  contemplated  that  in- 
volves from  ten  to  twenty  thousand  dollars — which  most  new  homes  now  cost — 
might  seem  evident.  But  it  will  be  many  years  before  this  will  become  the 
custom.  Therefore,  if  new  homes  are  to  be  an  improvement  on  old  ones,  the  point 
of  view  of  the  public  must  become  more  intelligent  with  respect  to  landscape 
planning.  It  is  said  that  "a  little  knowledge  is  a  dangerous  thing."  But  however 
that  statement  may  apply,  all  will  agreee  that  the  public  might  well  know  a  little 
more  about  landscape  planning  than  is  commonly  the  case  today,  in  order  that 
advantage  might  accrue  both  to  the  people  themselves  and  to  the  appearance  of 
the  suburbs. 


LANDSCAPE  PLANNING 
FOR  SMALL  HOMES 


COPYRIGHT 
E.  GORTON  DAVIS 

DEPARTMENT  OF  LANDSCAPE  ARCHITECTURE 

COLLEGE  OF  ARCHITECTURE,  CORNELL  UNIVERSITY 

1923 


PART  II 

CHAPTER  VII 
CLASSIFICATION  OF  PLANTS 

The  woody  plants  (the  trees,  the  shrubs,  and  the  vines),  the  herbaceous  flower- 
ing plants  and  ground  covers,  and  even  the  grass  are  all  essential  elements  in  the 
structure  and  the  scenery  of  the  yard.  However,  a  discriminating  selection  and 
an  intelligent  arrangement  of  plant  material  is  necessary  in  order  to  produce  the 
essential  structure  and  the  fitting  scenery.  In  building  a  house,  one  buys  the  a  ssort- 
mentof  material  required  for  a  given  plan;  and  in  order  to  produce  the  house  it  is 
necessary,  first,  to  have  a  plan,  next,  to  know  the  kinds  and  quantities  of  material 
needed,  and,  lastly,  to  know  how  to  assemble  them.  Most  of  the  material  loses  its 
identity  in  the  assemblage,  but  this  result  is  intentional  and  requisite  for  any  degree 
of  success  in  the  making  of  a  house.  In  the  yard  the  situation  is  precisely  the  same, 
and  in  order  to  make  useful  and  attractive  yards  it  is  equally  necessary  to  plan 
first,  then  to  determine  what  is  required  for  the  plan,  and,  finally,  to  assemble  the 
material  properly. 

Many  persons  start  wrong  by  first  making  a  selection  of  their  favorite  plants. 
Then  they  may  endeavor  to  arrange  and  to  so  combine  these  as  to  make  an  attrac- 
tive and  useful  yard;  but  they  encounter  many  misfits,  and  their  success  is 
limited.  In  most  instances,  these  favorite  plants  are  merely  scattered  about,  with 
thought  only  for  their  thrifty  growth  and  for  the  enjoyment  of  them  as  individuals. 
Nevertheless,  one's  interest  in  either  plants  or  buildings  does  not  justify  the 
sacrifice  of  other  essential  features.  Neither  houses,  nor  gardens,  nor  architectural 
details,  nor  plants,  nor,  in  fact,  any  part  of  a  residence  property  is  more  important 
than  the  plan  for  the  whole.  The  raison  d'etre  of  every  element  and  feature  lies 
only  in  its  contribution  to  the  effect  of  the  entire  plan.  However,  careful  planning 
at  the  start  does  not  necessarily  mean  the  sacrifice  of  one's  special  interests; 
rather,  it  affords  an  opportunity  for  the  best  development  of  each  of  the  elements. 
Further,  the  beauty  of  the  whole  is  then  the  sum  of  the  beauty  of  all  the  parts. 
Decorative  plants,  as  well  as  decoration  within  the  house,  to  appear  at  their  best, 
must  be  coordinated  with  their  environment. 

In  the  foregoing  chapters  much  has  been  said  about  planning,  but  now  this 
question  arises:  when  and  how  does  the  planning  for  plants  come  in?  In  the  very 
beginning,  emphasis  was  placed  upon  comprehensive  planning  as  the  only  means 
whereby  a  judicious  allotment  of  space  and  a  reasonable  arrangement  are  possible. 
The  plan  formulated  at  this  stage,  however,  can  be  merely  a  generalization.  The 
approximate  position  for  the  house,  and  perhaps  its  outline,  are  therein  determined; 
but  further  study  suggests  changes,  and  only  after  consideration  can  the  exact 
dimensions  of  the  house  be  finally  decided.  A  like  study  of  the  yard  and  of  its 
several  parts  suggests  slight  changes,  perhaps  also  including  some  slight  alteration 
in  the  position  of  the  house  or  even  of  details  of  its  plan  or  of  its  elevations.  Thus, 
through  processes  of  planning  that  become  more  and  more  detailed,  it  is  ulti- 
mately possible  to  develop  an  exact  plan  for  the  entire  lot.  When  this  much 
has  been  accomplished,  the  house  may  be  planned  in  detail,  and  even  built;  and 
detailed  plans  for  the  yard  may  likewise  be  made,  of  which  planting  plans  are 
a  part.  ;;  V" 

3 


In  building  a  house,  one  would  not  think  of  buying  a  heterogeneous  lot  of 
building  material  just  because  he  liked  it;  rather  would  he  carefully  buy  the 
material  called  for  in  some  predetermined  plan.  Furthermore,  by  far  the  greatest 
part  of  such  material  must  go  into  the  walls,  the  floors,  and  the  body  of  the 
structure.  The  decorative  features  of  the  house  are  in  a  very  small  proportion 
to  the  rest  of  the  house,  and  are  determined  as  to  their  position  and  character 
In  the  course  of  the  general  planning.  Therefore  they  are  essentially  a  part  of  the 
prearranged  plan.  But  it  is  ridiculous  to  attempt  to  plan  the  decorative  details 
before  the  structure  to  which  they  must  be  related  is  designed,  as  they  are  the 
last  part  of  the  house  to  be  planned  in  detail  and  built.  The  application  of  this 
principle  to  the  yard  is  quite  as  necessary  as  is  its  application  to  the  house.  The 
border  plantations,  the  hedges  or  the  plantations  between  the  several  areas,  the 
trees  or  the  shrubs  which  frame  the  house  front,  and  the  turf  which  carpets  most 
of  the  ground,  collectively,  make  up  the  structure  of  the  yard.  While  the  plan  for 
the  yard  is  being  formulated,  gateways,  arbors,  pools,  fountains,  seats,  and  even 
picturesque  groups  or  special  color  effects  of  plants,  may  suggest  themselves  or 
appear  necessary  in  one  place  or  another.  In  fact,  their  effectiveness  or  useful- 
ness in  particular  positions  may  even  suggest  their  exact  details;  but  these  con- 
stitute so  small  a  proportion  of  the  material  or  of  the  area  of  the  yard,  that  they 
should  be  the  last  steps  in  the  planning  or  the  making  of  the  yard.  The  structure 
of  the  yard  must  first  exist  before  it  can  possibly  be  decorated,  and  general  plans 
must  first  be  formulated  before  one  can  have  the  point  of  view  essential  for  the 
consideration  of  details  or  of  decoration.  Thus,  planting  plans  must  primarily 
concern  the  enclosing  plantations,  the  hedges,  the  mass  planting,  and  even  the 
arrangement  of  the  lawn  area.  The  importance  of  the  structural  planting  lies 
not  only  in  its  conversion  of  a  portion  of  unlimited  area  into  the  limited  area  of 
a  yard  and  its  specific  areas,  providing  privacy  and  protection,  but  also  in  its 
effective  massing  of  the  vegetation,  which  is  essential  to  the  beauty  of  the  yard 
and  as  an  effective  background  for  the  house,  the  decorative  structures,  and  even 
the  decorative  plants. 

The  open  lawn  is  the  foreground  of  the  house  front;  the  flanking  trees  or  shrubs 
grouped  about  it  furnish  its  frame;  and  the  plants  at  the  door  accentuate  its 
entrance  without  attracting  attention  to  themselves.  If  the  green  of  the  trees  is 
of  a  tone  that  harmonizes  with  the  green  of  the  grass  and  of  the  shrubbery,  then 
the  planting  in  the  front  yard,  collectively,  serves  as  a  frame  and  a  foreground  to 
the  house  front,  the  plants  at  the  door  perhaps  being  slightly  more  noticeable. 
Essential  as  all  this  planting  is,  however,  it  is  unquestionably  subservient  to  the 
house.  In  comparatively  small  yards,  large  shade  trees  make  for  a  better  appear- 
ance if  they  are  of  a  common  species,  such  as  elm,  maple,  the  spreading  type  of 
oak  or  the  like,  because  they  are  unobtrusive.  Trim  hedges  of  uniform  density  and 
perfection  of  surface  set  off  most  effectively  the  beautiful  form  or  color  of  the 
flowers  or  fruits  of  nearby  decorative  plants.  A  perfect  lawn  is  likewise  essential 
to  the  display  of  an  occasional  fine  specimen  tree  or  shrub  that,  while  not  planted 
in  the  center  of  the  lawn,  may  still  be  somewhat  detached  from  the  boundary 
plantations.  The  use  of  the  grass  of  the  lawns,  yards,  and  gardens  corresponds 
closely  to  that  of  the  plain  floor  coverings  inside  the  house;  and  the  less  patchy 
and  the  more  evenly  fine  its  texture,  the  more  satisfactory  the  background  it 
furnishes  for  those  things  disposed  upon  it. 


Border  plantations  need  not  be  entirely  composed  of  non-flowering  plants  in 
order  to  serve  as  backgrounds,  but  flowering  plants  selected  for  this  function 
should  qualify  as  to  suitable  foliage  when  there  are  no  flowers.  And  while  it  is 
natural  for  one  to  see  first  the  beauty  in  the  flower  color,  he  should  endeavor  to 
turn  his  attention  to  the  question  of  the  beauty  of  the  greens  of  the  foliage.  If 
one  cannot  easily  divorce  himself  from  his  all-absorbing  interest  in  flower  color, 
he  should  realize  that,  except  for  a  short  time  in  early  summer,  there  are  practical- 
ly no  flowers.  If  the  flowers  were  with  us  all  year  round,  we  might  not  be  so  inter- 
ested in  them.  The  spring  is  a  season  of  flower,  the  summer,  a  time  of  greens, 
while  in  the  fall,  color  is  presented  to  us  in  still  a  different  aspect;  and  therefore 
it  is  surely  expedient,  if  nothing  more,  to  make  the  most  of  each  season.  But 
while  we  enjoy  the  evergreens  when  winter  takes  all  other  color  from  us,  we  should 
prize  them  more  than  we  do,  considering  their  all-year-round  value,  and  their 
usefulness  as  backgrounds  for  color,  and  their  intrinsic  beauty. 

If  one  wishes  to  know  how  to  assemble  plants  to  produce  effects  in  accordance 
with  a  prearranged  plan,  he  must  observe  all  their  important  characteristics  and 
become  well-informed  respecting  them.  For  example,  there  are  many  kinds  of 
trees,  and  in  height  alone  they  will  vary  from  twenty  or  twenty-five  to  fifty 
feet  or  more.  Some  trees,  under  all  ordinary  conditions,  assume  their  character- 
istic form,  rounded  or  pointed;  and  according  to  the  density  and  compactness 
of  their  manner  of  growth,  this  characteristic  form  or  outline  will  be  more  or 
less  sharply  defined.  Other  trees  will  vary  markedly  under  conditions  of  soil, 
moisture,  and  crowded  or  exposed  environment.  The  same  may  also  be  said  of 
shrubs.  Evergreen  trees  and  shrubs  are  more  conspicuous  than  deciduous  forms 
if  the  latter  predominate  in  a  scene  or  a  landscape.  Unusual  characteristics  make 
all  plant  forms  conspicuous,  and  they  are  even  more  so  if  in  contrast  with  nearby 
plants.  Size,  habit,  color  value,  texture,  and  like  characteristics  are  the  factors 
which  should  determine  the  choice  of  plants  which  are  intended  to  produce  the 
effects  embodied  in  a  general  plan. 

To  be  suitable,  the  general  appearance  of  the  several  areas  of  the  yard  should 
be  different,  and  to  a  considerable  degree  this  must  be  effected  by  the  selection 
and  arrangement  of  the  vegetation.  Even  within  the  lawn  itself  it  is  desirable  to 
avoid  a  monotonous  border.  Focalization  of  interest  by  means  of  architectural 
features  or  suitable  plants  is  desirable  at  certain  points  in  the  border,  usually 
those  farthest  from  the  house  but  plainly  in  view.  Focalization  of  interest  by 
the  use  of  plants  whose  characteristics  give  them  individuality  also  requires  the 
use  of  other  plants  about  .them  to  constitute  a  suitable  background.  These 
background  plants  should  not  stand  out  as  individuals,  by  reason  of  interesting, 
curious,  or  even  unpleasant  characteristics;  rather,  they  should  lose  their  identity 
in  order  to  produce  a  mass  effect  of  unobtrusive  but  pleasing  foliage.  Thus  it 
should  be  evident  that  a  planting  plan  for  a  yard  requires  both  plants  that  are 
individually  prominent  and  plants  that  are  suitable  for  collective  or  mass  effects. 
Some  analysis  of  the  plant  element  of  the  yard  and  an  arbitrary  classification  of 
plants  producing  different  effects  will  perhaps  clarify  this  matter  and  simplify 
the  process  of  selection.  Let  us  therefore  group  all  the  vegetation  to  be  used  into 
two  classes,  one  including  plants  which  are  primarily  useful  for  background 
effects, — which,  growing  together,  tend  to  merge  into  a  mass  and  produce  an 
effect  of  green  foliage  varied  only  slightly  in  form,  tone,  and  skyline,  or  silhouette, 


— and  the  other  including  plants  which  are  distinctive  as  individuals  and  perhaps 
are  decorative  or  showy.  In  short,  the  first  class  may  be  called  plants  of  indefinite 
form  and  habit,  or  plants  for  background  purposes;  and  the  second,  plants  of 
definite  form  and  habit,  or  plants  for  accent  or  focalization  purposes. 

What  is  meant  by  plants  of  "indefinite  form  or  habit"?  As  one  walks  through 
a  woodland  or  thicket,  his  impression  is  not  that  of  walking  between  maple  or 
oak  or  hemlock  trees  and  viburnum,  witch  hazel,  or  other  bushes  and  other  specif- 
ic kinds  of  plants,  but  just  that  of  woods  or  coppice.  Whatever  the  particular 
type  of  woodland,  the  impression  is  a  general  one;  and  individual  plants  composing 
the  woodland  are  either  not  noticed  at  all,  or,  at  most,  are  not  sufficiently  promi- 
nent to  create  more  than  a  general,  or  collective,  impression.  Even  a  student  of 
natural  science,  who  is  acquainted  with  most  of  the  plants,  has  a  conception  of 
the  plants  collectively  rather  than  individually.  In  most  situations  where  the 
vegetation  is  native  and  spontaneous,  one's  impression  of  it  is  apt  to  be  that  of 
scenery  of  one  kind  or  another  where  few  if  any  plants  are  prominent  to  any 
great  degree.  Where  woods  or  thickets  verge  upon  a  clearing  or  a  field,  the  foliage 
becomes  more  dense,  but  the  several  kinds  of  trees  or  shrubs  cannot  be  differen- 
tiated except  by  close  examination,  and  from  a  distance  their  collective  effect 
is  merely  that  of  woodland  border. 

The  greater  part  of  our  native  vegetation  is  of  this  indefinite  character,  the 
separate  plants  merging  into  those  about  them  and  displaying  no  sharp  lines 
nor  conspicuous  variety.  In  the  spring  there  is  more  color,  but  all  the  color  is 
harmonious,  and  produces  collective  effects  similar  to  those  characteristic  of  the 
summer.  In  the  fall,  likewise,  although  there  may  be  brilliant  color  in  spots, 
all  the  color  is  brilliant  and  the  greater  contrasts  are  common.  At  all  seasons 
there  is  usually  a  predominance  of  the  more  sombre  colors,  and  the  occasional 
brilliant  color  of  flowers,  or  berries,  or  even  of  whole  trees  in  autumnal  red,  is 
thus  furnished  with  an  ample  and  a  harmonious  background. 

It  is  not  alone  some  definite  object  of  interest  which  makes  most  views  attrac- 
tive, but  it  is  the  setting  afforded  this  object, — the  boundless  tracts  of  woods,  the 
fields,  and  the  mass  effect  of  the  infinite  number  of  insignificant  plants.  Without 
these  insignificant  plants  we  could  not  have  our  fine  scenery.  There  is  variety  in 
our  scenery,  but  it  is  a  subtle  variety.  It  is  this  contrast  with  an  infinitely  greater 
proportion  of  indefinite  foliage  that  makes  possible  our  enjoyment  of  the  excep- 
tion,— the  individually  interesting  or  beautiful  plants. 

What  are  the  characteristics  of  the  individual  tree  or  shrub  which,  in  the  mass, 
make  for  indefiniteness?  When  one  enters  a  partial  clearing  in  the  woods,  where 
the  few  remaining  trees  stand  like  tall  spectres,  with  few  and  scattered  branches 
and  no  regularity  of  growth,  or  at  least  of  insufficient  density  to  give  the  appearance 
of  regularity,  he  may  see  good  examples  of  woodland  trees.  The  branches  have 
had  to  reach  for  light,  and  the  trees  have  become  irregular  in  habit,  even  if  of 
species  which,  in  the  open  field,  would  normally  tend  to  develop  into  symmetrical 
trees.  In  the  woods  the  branches  interlace,  and  from  a  distance,  at  least,  the 
green  of  their  leaves  being  similar,  there  appear  no  hard  and  fast  lines  of  foliage 
demarkation.  Some  trees,  whether  in  the  thicket  or  in  the  open,  persist  in  very 
irregular  habits  and  assume  no  general  symmetry  or  form.  Instead,  they  spread 
loosely,  seemingly  with  but  one  determination, — that  of  becoming  angular  and 
irregular.  Many  other  trees  that,  from  necessity  and  crowding  grow  irregularly 


in  the  woods,  assume  in  the  open  a  decidedly  dense  habit  of  growth  and  con- 
siderable symmetry  of  form.  However,  loosely  spreading  branches  tend  to  dis- 
tribute the  foliage  unevenly,  creating  masses  in  one  place  and  leaving  voids  in 
another;  and  this  manner  of  branching  results  in  foliage  of  varying  density,  and 
makes  for  high  lights  where  light  is  reflected  and  for  variable  shadows  where 
there  are  recesses.  Further,  the  generally  rounded  outlines  characteristic  of 
many  native  plants,  and  which  are  in  themselves  less  noticeable  than  pointed 
outlines,  become  less  evident  if  the  habit  of  the  plant  is  spreading  and  free  rather 
than  dense  and  compact. 

The  leaves  of  most  native  plants  do  not  differ  greatly  in  size  or  in  tone  of  green, 
and  for  this  reason,  in  a  mixture  of  them,  the  individuals  are  not  clearly  discern- 
ible. The  spreading  habits  of  the  plants  also  cause  their  branches  to  interweave, 
and  this  results  in  further  blending.  However,  the  slight  variation  in  texture 
and  in  tone  makes  for  a  play  of  light  and  shade,  thereby  preventing  monotony 
and  contributing  to  the  indefinite  character  of  the  mass.  Thus,  vagueness  of 
outline,  generally  rounded  but  interrupted,  and  surfaces  of  similar  texture  and 
tone  but  inconspicuously  varied, — in  other  words,  surfaces  which  are  receptive 
and  indefinite  rather  than  hard  and  repellant,  are  the  characteristics  and  the 
effects  of  vegetation  of  this  class.  We  greatly  admire  and  prize  these  plants  in 
our  country  scenery,  and  their  importance  generally,  as  well  as  their  usefulness  for 
the  scenery  of  our  yards,  should  be  evident. 

In  yards,  the  planting  should  unquestionably  be  more  horticultural  and  arti- 
ficial than  in  country  scenery;  and  yet  the  beauty  and  the  appeal  of  any  scene 
which  consists  entirely  of  very  subtle  variety  rather  than  of  strong  contrasts 
should  teach  us  a  lesson  in  principle  which  is  applicable  to  small  or  large  yards, 
to  parks,  and,  in  fact,  to  all  plant  design.  The  individual  trees,  outstanding  from  the 
woodland  edges  and  assuming  fine  proportions,  are  of  the  same  species  that  make 
up  the  mass  of  their  background;  but  in  their  more  perfect  development  lies  the 
secret  of  the  contrast  between  the  individuals  and  their  background.  Most  per- 
sons would  do  well  to  cultivate  an  appreciation  of  this  subtle  beauty  contrast. 
Contrast  and  variety  of  characteristics  in  plants  are  useful,  but  these  principles 
must  be  so  ordered  as  to  produce  the  desired  scenes.  In  brief,  the  plant  which 
lends  itself  readily  to  combination  is  essential,  while  the  showy  plant  is  good  if 
well  used  but  is  not  absolutely  necessary. 

What,  then,  are  the  characteristics  in  plants  which  make  for  contrary  effects, 
such  as  definition,  accent,  or  contrast,  and  therefore  render  them  suitable  for 
purposes  of  focalization?  To  begin  with,  if  one  can  closely  observe  conditions 
about  him,  or  even  sketches  of  scenery,  he  will  realize  that  the  lines  prevailing 
in  country  scenery,  and  also  in  cities,  are  horizontal  lines.  Most  trees  and  shrubs 
grow  into  forms  of  which  the  tops  are  broadly  rounded,  and  masses  of  this  vege- 
tation produce  the  effect  of  an  undulating,  but  generally  horizontal,  line.  If  to 
this  the  similar  lines  of  the  topography  itself  are  added,  the  prevalence  of  horizon- 
tal lines  becomes  very  evident.  In  very  hilly  or  even  mountainous  sections,  the 
effects  are  similar  if  seen  from  a  distance.  In  built-up  sections  of  cities,  the 
horizontal  lines  of  streets,  fences,  and  ground  lines,  are  longer  than  are  the  vertical 
lines  of  buildings.  With  this  predominance  of  horizontality,  any  expression  of 
verticalness  becomes  very  evident  by  reason  of  the  contrast. 


8 

Plant  forms  which  express  vertical  lines  tend  to  produce  the  strongest  accent, 
though  the  exact  degree  of  accent  depends  upon  other  characteristics  which 
render  more  or  less  definite  the  vertical  lines  of  the  plant.  For  example,  the  well- 
known  Lombardy  poplar  expresses  vertical  lines  in  its  general  outline,  and  also, 
as  every  twig  and  branch  of  the  tree  conforms  to  the  same  lines,  the  total  effect 
of  the  tree  is  markedly  vertical.  The  foliage  of  the  poplar,  however,  is  somewhat 
coarse  and  not  very  dense,  and  therefore  the  mass  of  the  tree  is  not  as  effective 
as  it  would  be  if  its  foliage  were  very  fine  and  dense  as  well  as  very  dark  green, 
similar  to  some  of  the  evergreen  trees.  While  the  Italian  cypress  is  not  sufficiently 
hardy  to  grow  in  the  north  of  this  country,  it  is  an  interesting  example  of  a  tree 
expressing,  perhaps,  the  strongest  accent.  This  cypress  is  very  narrow  in  propor- 
tion to  its  height,  is  very  dense,  and  is  very  sharply  pointed  at  the  top ;  and  its  fine 
texture,  density,  and  dark  green  foliage,  all  taken  together,  give  it  a  very  definite 
outline.  In  short,  its  every  detail  or  characteristic  unites  to  produce  a  strong  accent 
and  a  sharp  contrast  with  other  vegetation.  The  well-known  red  cedar  is  perhaps 
more  like  the  Italian  cypress  than  any  other  tree  native  to  this  country,  but 
the  habit  of  the  cedar  is  variable,  and  its  foliage  is  less  dense,  although  equally 
dark  in  value  of  green.  Also,  the  red  cedar  is  a  smaller  tree  than  either  the 
cypress  or  the  Lombardy  poplar.  A  very  slender  cedar  would  probably  make  a 
stronger  accent  than  a  Lombardy  poplar  of  the  same  size,  because  of  the  mass 
effect  of  the  cedar  and  because  of  its  relatively  darker  value;  but  at  maturity, 
the  considerably  greater  size  of  the  poplar  would  unquestionably  give  it  the 
greater  prominence.  Vertical  lines  in  the  foliage  for  a  certainty  make  for  a  very 
strong  accent;  but  size,  mass  effect,  and  value  of  green,  are  all  important  contribut- 
ing factors. 

Vertical  lines  are  more  unusual  both  in  plant  habits  and  in  scenery,  but  dis- 
tinctly horizontal  branching  is  likewise  uncommon  and  also  creates  a  sharp  con- 
trast with  the  variable  branching  habit  common  to  most  plants.  This  horizontal 
branching,  characteristic  of  some  field  thornes,  pines,  and  a  few  other  trees  and 
shrubs,  is  not  so  apt  to  occur  when  the  plant  is  young  and  is  making  rapid  upward 
growth,  as  when  it  is  older.  If  the  growth  habit  of  a  plant  is  open  like  that  of  an 
old  white  pine,  so  that  the  branches  and  the  lines  thereby  expressed  are  evident, 
the  accent  produced  is  very  distinct.  Also,  a  similar  degree  of  horizontality  is 
expressed  if  the  growth  habit  of  a  plant  is  dense  and  if  the  resulting  effect  is 
primarily  that  of  a  flatly  rounded  outline.  Under  these  circumstances,  as  well  as 
in  some  others,  evergreen  foliage,  fine  texture,  and  dark  foliage  value  contribute 
to  the  degree  of  accent.  An  interesting  example  of  this  is  another  Italian  tree, 
the  stone  pine.  As  a  young  tree  it  is  much  like  other  pines,  but  when  its  rapid 
growth  is  accomplished,  a  flatly  rounded  and  dense  head  of  dark  green  foliage  is 
formed,  and,  to  make  the  tree  still  more  striking  in  appearance,  the  lower  branches 
fall,  leaving  this  top  raised  high  upon  a  tall,  straight  trunk. 

Contrasts  resulting  from  colors  other  than  green,  due  to  flowers,  fruit,  or  un- 
usual foliage,  are  dependent  partly  upon  the  color  itself  and  partly  upon  the 
colors  or  values  of  color  of  the  foliage  immediately  adjacent.  It  is  generally 
inadvisable  to  resort  to  the  use  of  much  strong  color,  for  reasons  already  mentioned. 
Strong  contrasts  are  not  necessary  for  pleasing  effects,  and  to  manipulate  these 
contrasts  successfully  requires  skill  and  experience.  Dominant  colors,  such  as 
all  shades  of  red,  and  yellows  except  in  the  light  shades,  result  in  foreshortening. 


9 

Of  course,  the  brilliant  color  of  fruit  scattered  through  foliage  does  not  have  the 
same  intensity  of  effect  as  does  an  entire  tree  or  shrub  of  red,  purple,  or  yellow 
foliage,  or  even  as  does  a  profusion  of  flowers  of  similar  colors.  Generally  speaking, 
slight  contrasts  make  for  broader  effects,  and  thus  tend  to  enlarge  the  apparent 
size  of  an  area,  but  strong  color  in  any  considerable  quantity  is  apt  to  produce  the 
contrary  effect.  Light  colors, — the  delicate  shades  of  pink,  yellow,  and,  of  course 
white,  and  light  or  dark  blue,  — all  these  may  safely  be  used  in  gardens  or  borders, 
if  in  keeping  with  a  well-conceived  general  plan.  A  plentiful  proportion  of  dark 
green  foliage  about  colors  will  always  improve  the  quality  of  the  latter,  and  also 
will  accentuate  the  effect  of  it.  However,  these  remarks  in  regard  to  the  use  of 
color  are  intended  merely  to  suggest  a  guarded  use  of  it. 

Extreme  contrasts,  and  the  plant  characteristics  responsible  for  them,  are  no 
doubt  evident  to  interested  persons; -but  degrees  of  prominence  in  plants,  due  to 
their  form,  habit,  texture,  or  value  of  green,  in  various  combinations,  and  also 
the  contrast  of  these  characteristics  with  adjacent  foliage, — all  this  close  obser- 
vation and  comparative  study, — is  unusual  but  nevertheless  necessary.  If  the  habit 
of  a  tree  or  a  shrub  is  such  as  to  make  for  regularity  of  form  and  for  a  sharp, 
distinct  outline,  then  the  form  itself  will  largely  determine  the  degree  of  prom- 
inence. Both  ends  of  the  scale,  in  respect  to  form,  have  already  been  mentioned. 
The  most  vertical  produces,  unquestionably,  the  strongest  degree  of  accent.  Con- 
ical forms,  and  tall,  narrow  trees  whose  sides  are  somewhat  rounded,  may  be 
considered  first  in  degree  of  prominence.  Columnar,eliptical,  round,  flatly  round, 
and  similar  forms  follow  in  their  order  of  degree  of  accent;  and  unless  these  forms 
are  sharply  defined,  their  degree  of  accent  will  be  largely  due  to  their  isolation 
and  to  their  resulting  individuality,  rather  than  to  their  individual  prominence 
of  form.  Doubtless,  a  plant  displaying  a  very  perfect  spherical  form,  due  either 
to  natural  habit  of  artificial  trimming,  has  a  considerable  focalizing  value.  And 
also,  if  the  form  is  such  as  to  strongly  express  horizontality,  it  is  thought  that 
its  degree  of  accent  is  greater  than  those  of  the  intermediate  forms. 

Other  characteristics,  however,  play  an  important  r61e  in  the  determination 
of  degrees  of  accent.  An  evenly  fine  texture  or  density  of  foliage  materially 
aids  in  the  expression  of  form,  not  only  because  these  characteristics  make  for 
mass  effect,  but  also  because  they  are  likely  to  result  in  a  clean-cut  outline.  Of 
course,  this  may  sometimes  be  accomplished  artificially  by  means  of  shearing. 
Also,  if  the  branching  of  a  plant  or  its  detailed  habit,  either  in  branching  or  in 
leafing,  expresses  lines  parallel  to  the  general  lines  of  the  plant,  then  the  habit 
of  the  plant  accentuates  its  form.  If  the  outline  of  a  plant  is  one  of  densely 
vertical  lines,  while  the  branching  is  evidently  variable  in  direction  or  even  con- 
trary to  these  lines,  then  some  confusion  of  expression  results,  and  the  degree 
of  accent  is  thereby  lessened.  Color,  or  the  value  of  unusual  color  in  foliage, 
results  in  contrast.  But  while  there  are  exceptions  to  all  rules,  let  it  be  accepted 
without  further  explanation  that,  at  least  in  small  yards,  these  contrasts  should 
be  restricted  to  the  use  of  darker  and  richer  qualities  of  green  foliage.  Further- 
more, coarse-leaved  plants  and  most  "weeping"  forms  are  unsuitable  for  purposes 
of  accentuation  or  for  general  massing. 

As  already  suggested,  the  degree  of  accent  which  may  be  derived  from  any 
plant  depends  not  only  upon  the  characteristics  of  the  plant  itself,  but  also  upon 
its  contrast  with  the  adjoining  plants.  For  example,  if  one  is  using  only  form  and 


10 

green  foliage  to  create  contrasts,  or,  in  brief,  only  those  effects  which  are  sustained 
throughout  the  year,  the  most  striking  contrast  is  produced  by  the  juxtaposition 
of  the  most  vertical  and  the  most  horizontal  forms  of  evergreens.  These  extreme- 
ly picturesque  contrasts  are  very  effective  if  very  cleverly  used,  but  if  they  are 
employed  in  situations  evidently  not  requiring  them,  the  work  appears  amateur- 
ish and  crude.  Picturesque  contrasts  in  artificial  scenery  are  very  quaint  and 
pleasing  in  many  instances,  but  this  type  of  scenery,  suitable  in  small  yards,  is 
usually  the  result  of  combinations  of  plants  and  architectural  features  rather 
than  of  combinations  of  plants  alone.  That  quality  in  the  scenery  of  yards  which 
makes  for  breadth  and  beauty  is  most  satisfying.  A  keen  evaluation  of  the. degrees 
of  accent  obtainable  from  plants  enables  one  to  differentiate  between  plants  and 
their  effects,  to  control  focalization,  and  thus  to  procure  the  effect  desired, 
within  a  small  scale  or  range  of  contrast.  '  In  this  careful  manner  should  the 
element  of  contrast  be  used,  if  the  most  beautiful  entire  yard  effects  are  to  be 
produced.  Unskillful  use  of  plants  is  always  evident  in  the  misuse  of  contrasts. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
SELECTION  AND  COMBINATION  OF  PLANTS 

Plants  used  as  individuals,  such  as  shade  trees  about  the  house  and  decorative 
"specimens,"  outstanding  from  the  borders  or  flanking  the  steps  at  the  entrance 
or  otherwise  isolated  from  any  groups  or  plantations,  attract  attention  to  them- 
selves by  reason  of  their  isolation,  and  therefore  become  comparatively  con- 
spicuous, regardless  of  the  appearance  of  the  plants  themselves.  As  plants  so 
used  have  a  degree  of  prominence  to  begin  with,  one  should  be  especially  careful 
not  to  choose  as  specimens  trees  or  shrubs  which  will  become  too  conspicuous. 
Of  course,  the  common  errors  in  planting  a  yard  are  the  use  of  too  showy  plants, 
and  the  promiscuous,  unmotivated  use  of  too  many  of  them.  As  has  already 
been  said,  a  mere  collection  of  plants  in  a  yard  is  quite  distinct  from  a  yard 
judiciously  planted  in  accordance  with  a  good  design.  In  small  yards,  one  cannot 
break  up  the  areas  with  many  individual  plants  without  producing  both  incon- 
venience and  ill  effects. 

If  individual  plants  can  have  a  useful  function  to  perform  in  addition  to  the 
display  of  their  beauty,  they  will  become  a  more  fitting  decoration  to  the  unas- 
suming and  simple  character  suitable  for  small  yards.  For  example,  shade 
trees  have  an  apparent  use,  aside  from  their  decorative  value;  but  too  many 
flowering  shrubs  or  fancy  trees  scattered  about  have  evidently  nothing  but  their 
own  attractiveness  to  contribute  to  the  yard.  Even  the  suggestion  of  over- 
decoration  in  a  small  yard  is  unfortunate,  whether  by  plants  or  by  architectural 
details.  A  careful  selection  of  plants  and  a  guarded  and  skilful  use  of  a  few  speci- 
mens will  accomplish  greater  effectiveness  than  will  an  undiscriminating  lavish- 
ness  of  decoration.  ;  ^ 

Individual  trees  in  small  yards  are  very  prominent.  There  is  not  room  for 
many  of  them,  and  the  trees  seem  larger  by  contrast  with  the  smallness  of  the 
yard.  It  is  wise,  therefore,  to  plan  for  all  the  individual  trees  at  one  time,  and 
with  a  view  to  their  combined  effect.  If  but  a  single  tree  is  used  in  the  front  yard, 
it  should  be  very  carefully  placed  with  respect  to  the  balance  of  the  whole  picture 
as  seen  from  the  street.  If  the  house  is  not  situated  midway  across  the  width 
of  the  lot,  one  way  to  restore  the  appearance  of  balance  on  either  side  of  the  en- 
trance walk  and  the  door  is  to  place  a  tree  somewhere  on  the  narrower  side.  Of 
course,  skill  is  necessary  in  the  selection  of  a  tree  of  just  the  right  size  and  appear- 
ance to  restore  the  balance.  This  tree  should  not  be  so  obvious  as  to  compete 
for  the  interest  which  should  center  in  the  house  front  and  the  main  entrance. 
Neither  should  it  cover  up  too  much  of  the  house,  nor  be  too  bulky,  or  even 
unfortunately  small,  in  comparison  with  the  street  trees.  Of  course,  the  nearer 
it  is  to  the  front  door,  the  less  it  will  count  as  a  balance;  and  on  the  other  hand, 
the  farther  it  is  to  the  side  of  the  lot,  the  more  important  the  same  tree  will 
appear.  If,  on  the  opposite,  and  the  larger,  side  of  the  front  yard  another  tree 
seems  desirable,  then  the  tree  for  the  narrower  side  may  be  still  larger,  and  a 
comparatively  small  tree  or  even  a  large  shrub  will  suffice  to  counterbalance 
it,  as  the  latter  will  most  likely  be  at  a  much  greater  distance  from  the  front 
door.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  front  door  should  be  the  center  of  in- 

1 


terest,  and  therefore  conspicuous  individual  plants  on  either  side  of  it  must  be 
so  selected  and  so  placed  as  to  correct  or  preserve  this  balance. 

If  a  house  stands  in  the  center  of  its  lot,  and  especially  if  its  facade  is  a  sym- 
metrical one,  then  any  large  or  conspicuous  plants  in  the  front  yard  should  be 
symmetrically  placed  and  should  also  be  of  the  same  kind,  or  at  least  not  notice- 
ably different.  From  the  discussions  in  the  foregoing  chapters,  it  should  be 
evident  that  no  front  yard  foliage  should  be  unduly  conspicuous.  Massive  and 
round-headed  trees  and  shrubs,  for  example,  are  usually  more  suitable  than 
sharply  pointed  forms.  Moreover,  this  principle  applies  also  to  the  plants  occa- 
sionally used  on  either  side  of  the  front  door.  When  related  particularly  to  some 
details  of  the  house  design,  plants  should,  of  course,  be  considerably  smaller 
than  the  trees  on  the  lawn,  which  on  the  contrary  relate  principally  to  the  entire 
house  front.  However,  plants  immediately  adjoining  the  doorway  may  be  even  more 
conspicuous  than  the  lawn  trees;  in  fact,  they  may  properly  be  the  most  promi- 
nent plants  in  the  entire  front  yard.  Frequently  fine  evergreens  or  dense,  low- 
growing  shrubs  that  are  showy  with  berries  in  winter  when  the  leaves  have  fallen, 
are  most  suitable.  At  times,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  shear 'such  deciduous  shrubs  in 
order  to  give  them  a  more  distinct  and  regular  form.  Unless  the  house  and 
the  door  are  very  elaborate,  rounded  forms  are  best.  The  whole  front  should  be 
thus  carefully  studied  as  a  picture,  and  the  individual  plants  proposed  for  the 
area  should  be  subordinated  to  the  tout  ensemble. 

Trees  standing  on  either  side  of  the  house,  or  even  behind  it,  when  seen  from 
the  street  become  a  part  of  this  aspect,  and  must  be  taken  into  account.  Very 
high  boundary  planting  intended  fb  enclose  a  garden  effectively,  may  become 
so  prominent  in  the  front-yard  scene  as  to  require  the  use  of  a  stronger  accent 
on  the  narrow  side  of  the  front  lawn,  such  as  a  massive  tree  or  a  tall-boled  tree 
with  a  spreading  top,  in  order  to  preserve  the  balance  in  the  front.  It  is  usually 
best,  however,  to  plant  about  the  house  those  large  trees  which  have  an  indefinite 
form  and  growth  habit,  as,  in  the  last  analysis,  these  are  but  accessory  to  the 
house  and  therefore  should  not  be  conspicuous  in  themselves.  Trees  rising  above 
the  house  and  in  its  rear,  frequently  add  greatly  to  the  appearance  of  the  building 
and  to  the  homelike  atmosphere  of  the  entire  property.  But  such  trees  should 
likewise  have  broadly  spreading  tops.  The  most  important  rear  view  of  a  house 
is  that  from  the  lawn  behind  it,  and  this  is  of  necessity  limited.  A  shade  tree, 
tall  and  somewhat  spreading  in  habit,  is  frequently  well  placed  near  the  porches 
or  terraces  overlooking  the  rear  lawns,  for  there  it  provides  useful  shade  as  well 
as  making  the  views  from  the  house  out  over  the  lawn  more  pleasing  and  inter- 
esting. 

On  a  small  rear  lawn  there  is  rarely  space  for  more  than  one  large  tree  in  addi- 
tion to  those  required  for  the  border  planting.  In  fact,  unless  this  lawn  is  un- 
usually large,  medium-sized  trees  are  probably  better  than  large  ones.  For 
example,  a  large  tree  such  as  the  elm  or  the  red  or  white  oak  will,  at  maturity, 
have  a  spread  of  branches  amounting  to  about  sixty  feet  in  diameter.  Other 
trees  which  will  grow  equally  tall  without  spreading  so  widely,  and  therefore  will 
neither  occupy  so  much  space  nor  cast  too  much  shade,  may  be  selected.  As 
another  alternative,  one  may  select  trees  of  a  form  and  habit  similar  to  that  of 
well-known  larger  trees  but  smaller  in  every  way.  If  high-headed  trees,  such  as 
the  elm,  are  desired,  unless  one  can  plant  fairly  large  trees  at  the  start,  it  will 


be  necessary,  to  wait  until  they  have  grown  before  all  their  lower  branches  can 
be  cut  off.  Of  course,  if  one  can  afford  it,  large  trees  should  be  purchased  at  the 
start  for  the  distinctive  positions  about  the  house.  Under  these  circumstances, 
both  the  desired  species  and  a  habit  particularly  suitable  may  be  simultaneously 
obtained.  However,  whether  one  or  two  specimen  trees  are  to  be  used  in  the  rear, 
and  whether  they  are  to  be  near  the  house,  or  distant  from  it,  or  both,  the  spa^ 
ciousness  of  the  lawn  should  by  no  means  be  obstructed,  nor  the  good  quality  of 
the  turf  broken  by  too  much  shade.  Generally  speaking,  all  such  trees  should  be 
either  grouped  about  the  house  in  order  to  appear  related  primarily  to  it,  or 
sufficiently  near  the  boundaries  to  somewhat  demark  the  extremities  of  the  lot. 
It  is  thought  that  a  judicious  use  of  large  trees,  for  the  most  part  of  the  indefinite 
class,  does  not  clutter  up  a  small  property,  affords  shade  where  it  is  needed,  and 
thus  may  contribute  materially  to  the  effect  of  enclosure  and  of  a  pleasant,  home- 
like atmosphere. 

In  the  case  of  an  enclosed  lawn  which  is  very  deep  and  ample,  a  recess  in  the 
borders  and  views  terminating  therein  may  be  accentuated  in  depth  by  means  of 
two  or  more  massive  trees  disposed  on  either  side  of  the  recess,  thus  narrowing 
it.  Of  course,  this  use  of  individual  trees  requires  foliage  not  of  itself  very  notice- 
able, as  the  plants  of  showy  nature  must  be  located  in  the  depth  of  the  recess  in 
order  to  accentuate  the  length  of  the  view.  Large  shrubs  may  be  used  where 
the  space  is  more  limited  with  similar  but  with  not  as  marked  results.  Specimen 
shrubs  and  trees  located  at  the  far  sides  of  lawns  and  serving  primarily  as  termini 
for  long  views  from  the  house  may  be  of  a  somewhat  conspicuous  nature.  How- 
ever, unless  the  lawns  are  quite  ample,  plants  intended  to  sharply  terminate  the 
longest  view  lines,  thus  giving  prominence  to  the  lawn's  greatest  dimensions,  had 
best  be  incorporated  in  the  borders. 

In  Addition  to  these  possibilities  for  the  use  of  individual  plants  there  are,  of 
course,  many  which  pertain  more  particularly  to  specific  conditions  in  various 
yards,  and  these  are  none  the  less  important.  Among  these  particular  oppor- 
tunities are  situations  at  the  angles  of  houses,  in  which  a  single,  fine,  large  plant 
looks  far  better  than  a  lot  of  little  plants,  or  even  than  a  number  of  larger 
plants.  Also  the  use  of  evergreen,  or  even  deciduous,  specimens,  regularly  disposed 
in  formal  garden  plans  or  picturesquely  grouped  or  scattered  in  unconventional 
arrangements,  may  serve  effectively  to  delineate  the  design,  to  decorate  the  garden, 
and  to  contribute  good  color.  Moreover,  the  horticultural  nature  of  these  showy 
plants  also  contributes  to  their  gardenlike  character.  To  use  the  right  plant  in 
the  right  place  is  exceedingly  important  when  dealing  with  plants  which  must 
of  necessity  be  more  or  less  conspicuous;  and  there  is  but  one  safe  course  with 
respect  to  individual  plants:  to  use  too  few,  and  the  less  conspicuous  kinds, 
rather  than  too  many. 

Groups  of  plants,  by  reason  of  their  isolation,  receive  a  degree  of  prominence, 
as  their  circumstances  are  not  unlike  those  of  single  plants  standing  quite  alone. 
Hence,  in  selecting  and  arranging  plants  for  groups,  one  should  observe  much  the 
same  caution  that  is  necessary  in  the  use  of  individual  plants;  and  if  the  group  is 
intended  for  focalization,  one  should  remember  that  it  will  have  a  degree  of 
prominence  as  a  group,  quite  aside  from  the  conspicuousness  of  the  individual  plants 
of  which  it  is  composed. 


Groups  may  be  a  part  of  conventionally  arranged  planting,  as  well  as  of 
unconventional,  or  so-called  "informal,"  planting  about  lawns  and  other  areas. 
The  use  of  groups  in  unconventional  planting  schemes  will,  of  course,  be  more 
common  in  small  yards, — in  such  positions  as  the  angles  of  walks,  the  corners  of 
grass  plots,  the  termini  of  vistas,  at  house  corners,  and  in  similar  places.  In  all 
such  groups,  it  is  usually  necessary  to  space  the  plants  at  unequal  intervals,  and 
not  in  rows,  but  irregularly,  although  cleverly  and  purposely,  with  a  view  to  pro- 
ducing the  desired  effect.  For  example,  a  small  group  of  three  plants  would 
usually  be  arranged  on  the  plan  of  a  triangle  with  all  of  its  sides  unequal.  A  group 
may  be  compact,  resulting  eventually  in  all  the  plants  merging  to  some  degree 
and  thus  giving  the  effect  of  a  single  plant;  or  it  may  be  merged  below  and  have 
the  tops  of  the  individual  plants  distinct,  all  depending  upon  the  spacing  of  the 
plants  and  on  fheir  habits  of  growth.  Again,  a  group  of  three  plants  may  be 
spaced  more  widely,  resulting  in  two  of  the  plants  merging  to  some  degree  while 
the  third  stands  somewhat  apart  as  an  individual.  Sometimes  it  is  even  possible 
to  so  arrange  the  spacing  of  three  or  more  plants  that  there  is  no  merging  what- 
ever, although  the  group  appearance  is  preserved.  Of  course,  equal  and  close 
spacing  tends  to  produce  a  mass  effect  and  a  more  regular  one;  but  the  more 
varied  and  picturesque  effect  resulting  from  an  unequal  spacing  is,  in  most 
cases,  more  suitable.  Variety  of  light  and  shade  and  of  skyline  is  possible  in  small 
groups  only  to  a  limited  degree.  But  in  situations  where  five  or  more  plants 
may  be  used,  variety  of  effect  may  be  produced  more  easily  by  the  use  of  a  greater 
number  of  plants  in  a  studied  but  irregular  arrangement. 

Usually  situations  needing  small  groups  do  not  call  for  a  conspicuous  plant 
feature,  but  merely  for  a  mass  of  foliage  specific  only  in  quantity  and  in  generally 
rounded  outline.  Therefore,  small  groups  at  the  corners  of  buildings,  at  the  angles 
of  walks,  and  in  like  situations,  should,  in  most  cases,  consist  of  but  one  k;nd  of 
plant.  If  a  group  of  three  is  desired,  with  the  middle  plant  taller  than  those  on 
either  side,  then,  as  they  are  planted,  a  taller  one  may  be  selected  for  this  position, 
or  even  when  the  plants  are  being  purchased  suitable  sizes  may  be  procured  for 
this  grouping.  As  the  plants  of  such  groups  grow,  their  relative  heights  will  be 
maintained.  One  should  realize,  however,  that  in  groups  and  masses,  the  inside 
plants  tend  to  grow  taller,  according  as  they  are  crowded,  while  those  on  the  out* 
side  tend  to  spread  and  to  grow  more  laterally.  Hence,  if  several  plants  of  the 
same  species  and  the  same  size  are  planted  sufficiently  close  to  merge  as  they 
grow,  equal  spacing  will  tend  to  result  in  evenly  rounded  masses  (higher  in  the 
center  than  at  the  edges),  and  unequal  spacing  will  tend  to  produce  masses  of 
varied  and  undulating  outlines.  Therefore,  it  is  not  necessary  to  employ  different 
kinds  of  plants  to  produce  groups  of  somewhat  varied  forms.  However,  the  pro- 
posed forms  and  outlines  may  be  realized  somewhat  sooner,  if,  when  the  groups 
are  being  planted,  the  plants  are  carefully  selected  with  respect  to  their  sizes  and 
shapes,  and  if  they  are  assembled  accordingly, — tall  ones  where  height  is  desired, 
and  low,  spreading  ones  about  the  edges.  By  this  means,  and  as  a  result  of  the 
natural  tendency  in  plants  of  the  same  species  to  assume  different  habits  of  growth 
and  rates  of  growth,  within  a  few  years  groups  consisting  of  but  one  kind  of  shrub 
or  tree  will  display  a  sufficient  variety  of  foliage  and  form  to  prevent  monotony. 
These  suggestions  apply  equally  well  to  shrubs  and  to  trees  of  all  sizes. 


Usually  it  is  easier  to  make  interesting  groups  by  using  a  number  of  plants 
rather  than  a  few;  and,  if  the  number  must  be  small,  perhaps  it  is  easier  to  work 
with  odd  numbers.  In  large  groups  and  in  unconventional  ones,  the  spacing  is 
still  according  to  a  studied  irregularity,  with  a  view  to  obtaining  the  desired 
variety.  Usually,  the  best  appearance  of  a  picturesque  treatment  requires  a 
variety  of  height  in  several  places  but  with  no  two  alike,  with  the  possible  excep- 
tion of  the  lower  plants.  Further,  a  group  is  more  interesting  if  its  highest  part 
is  distinctly  "off  center, "and  also  if  the  several  high  places  are  so  arranged  as  to 
make  for  a  pleasing,  up-and-down  outline,  or  skyline.  In  this  scheme  of  spacing 
and  skyline,  however,  it  is  also  necessary  to  so  compose  the  planting  as  to  obtain 
the  appearance  of  balance  on  either  side  of  the  highest  point.  Furthermore,  this 
appearance  of  balance  should  be  satisfactory  from  all  sides,  or  at  least  from  all 
points  from  which  the  group  may  be  seen.  In  such  groups,  it  is  also  possible 
to  obtain  the  same  effects  with  plants  of  but  a  single  species. 

Occasionally  groups  are  needed  as  a  means  of  focalization,  as  for  termini  of 
long  walks,  and  vistas,  and  for  other  similar  situations.  For  such  purposes  it  is 
not  always  necessary  to  resort  to  the  sharpest  contrasts  in  order  to  produce  accents ' 
of  a  satisfactory  degree,  although  it  is  well  to  know  of  these  possibilities.  In  a 
group  of  three,  for  example,  the  strongest  accent  is  made  by  selecting,  for  the 
tallest  plant,  one  of  vertical  form  and  habit,  and  for  the  other  two,  rounded  forms 
of  distinctly  smaller  size.  All  plants  may  be  evergreen,  or  the  rounded  forms 
may  be  deciduous  if  the  desired  shapes  can  be  found,  or  perhaps  made,  artificially, 
by  occasional  shearing.  Larger  groups  of  a  similar  degree  of  focalization  will 
result  from  the  use  of  more  of  the  same  elements,  but  it  may  be  advisable  to 
decrease  the  ratio  of  taller  plants  as  the  entire  number  of  plants  is  increased. 
Only  rarely  should  one  venture  to  use  plants  of  markedly  different  colors  for 
purposes  of  focalization.  On  the  contrary,  it  should  be  noted  that  degrees  of 
contrast  are  more  effectually  increased  or  lessened,  respectively,  by  a  variation 
in  the  ratio  of  the  sizes  of  the  vertical  and  the  horizontal  elements. 

Groups  of  considerable  prominence  may  be  made  by  the  use  of  taller  eliptical 
or  rounded  plants  with  other  rounded  plants  which  are  smaller  or  not  so  tall. 
Very  pretty  groups  may  be  composed  entirely  of  a  variety  of  rounded  forms, 
some  of  which  may  be  very  fine  evergreens.  In  these  groups,  however,  some  of  the 
plants  should  be  of  free  and  graceful  habit,  thus,  in  an  unobtrusive  manner, 
harmonizing  the  sharply  defined  evergreen  forms  with  the  rest)*  of  the  group. 
One  should  guard  against  the  temptation  to  use  too  showy  evergreens,  however, 
especially  in  the  yards  adjoining  simple  frame  houses.  For  most  planting,  the 
native  evergreens,  rather  than  imported  or  horticultural  varieties,  and  deciduous 
shrubs  are  usually  more  suitable.  Many  deciduous  shrubs  are  by  habit  regular 
and  dense,  and  therefore  well  fitted  for  picturesque  groups.  These,  with  or  with- 
out shearing  to  render  them  still  more  perfect,  and  combined  with  other  decidu- 
ous shrubs  of  a  somewhat  indefinite  habit,  will  frequently  prove  decidedly 
attractive.  It  should  be  remembered  that  all  groups  receive  a  certain  degree  of 
prominence  merely  from  their  isolation. 

The  use  of  too  great  a  variety  of  plants  must  be  avoided  if  the  most  interesting 
groups  are  to  be  made.  In  all  the  variations  between  mass  effects  and  picturesque 
effects, — in  fact,  in  all  groups, — one  kind  of  a  plant  should  predominate  in  quan- 
tity, and  as  a  rule  this  should  be  the  least  striking  plant.  From  this  it  may  be 


6 

inferred  that  but  a  small  proportion  of  conspicuous  plants  is  necessary  for  a 
well-balanced  group.  While  it  is  dangerous  to  be  too  specific,  let  us  say,  for  ex- 
ample, that  in  a  group  of  three  plants  it  is  unwise  to  use  more  than  two  kinds. 
The  same  is  true  for  a  group  of  five,  and  possibly  even  of  six  or  seven.  In  groups 
of  three,  five,  or  seven,  the  accent  plants  should  probably  number  one,  one  or 
two,  and  two,  respectively.  It  is  evident  that  an  increase  in  the  number  of  con- 
spicuous plants  would  very  likely  destroy  the  balance  of  the  group.  However, 
this  use  of  figures  and  of  exact  proportions  in  examples  must  not  be  mistaken  for 
absolute  rules,  but  should  be  regarded  merely  as  illustrations  of  the  general 
principles  applicable  to  most  cases. 

Three  varieties  may  perhaps  be  combined  into  a  group  that  includes  in  all 
about  ten  plants,  if  the  accent  plants  are  of  but  a  single  kind  and  if  the  two 
other  kinds  composing  the  mass  of  the  group  are  similar.  Further,  in  order  to 
maintain  the  predominance  of  one  kind  of  foliage,  the  two  similar  varieties  should 
not  be  used  in  equal  proportions.  Rather,  the  divisions  should  be  made  apparently 
unequal.  To  insure  this  unequal  division  by  the  time  the  plants  of  the  group 
have  matured,  the  fact  that  one  species  perhaps  grows  faster  or  becomes  larger 
than  the  other  should  be  noted  at  the  start,  and  each  plant  should  be  accordingly 
Hsed  in  quantities  which  will  insure  the  desired  proportion  in  the  ultimate  effect. 
Usually  groups  larger  than  those  composed  of  ten  plants  are  necessary  to  obtain 
satisfactory  effects  when  more  than  two  varieties  are  used  in  a  group.  However, 
larger  groups,  or  those  so  long  as  to  resemble  a  continuous  border,  may,  under 
some  circumstances,  include  greater  variety  of  foliage  and  form.  But  the  principle 
of  employing  slight,  rather  than  strong,  contrasts,  and  that  of  relying  upon  dif- 
ferent forms  of  similar  values  of  green,  rather  than  upon  a  variety  of  colors,  to 
produce  contrast  in  the  desired  degree,  should  both  be  generally  applied  in  the 
composition  of  groups.  The  tendency  to  use  too  great  a  variety  of  plants  should 
be  resisted  upon  all  occasions,  and  selection  should  be  made  in  accordance  with 
reason  and  well-laid  plans. 

The  word  group  implies  singleness,  or  unity,  and  not  a  spotty  effect  of  three, 
five,  seven,  or  any  other  definite  number  of  individual  plants  which  may  be  in- 
tended to  constitute  a  group.  This  undesirable  appearance  is  likely  to  result 
when  the  variety  of  plants  used  is  too  great,  or  when  the  plants  all  possess  too 
definite  a  form  or  habit  of  growth.  After  the  plants  have  matured,  the  appearance 
of  the  group  slaould  be  that  of  a  whole,  — not  that  of  several  distinct  shrubs  or 
trees.  No  doubt  a  rounded,  massive  group  gives  the  least  impression  of  being 
composed  of  separate  plants;  but  even  the  most  picturesque  group  should  have 
its  unlike  elements  balanced  with  such  nicety  as  to  render  its  conspicuous  plants 
less  evident  individually,  while  at  the  same  time  making  them  contributory  to 
the  effectiveness  of  the  entire  group.  It  is  even  possible,  by  careful  and  skilful 
composition,  to  space  the  plants  of  a  group  so  widely  as  to  entirely  prevent  their 
merging,  while  at  the  same  time  producing  a  satisfactory  unified  effect.  The 
skill  necessary  to  compose  groups  of  trees  or  shrubs  in  accordance  with  the 
principles  of  design,  may,  in  a  measure,  be  natural  to  some  persons,  but  it  is  more 
apt  to  be  the  result  of  study  and  experience.  However,  if  one  will  adopt  an  easy 
way  of  doing  his  planting,  and  will  keep  it  simple  rather  than  complex,  and  will 
work  for  subdued  rather  than  striking  contrasts,  he  may  be  reasonably  assured 
of  results  which  are  both  pleasing  and  in  good  taste. 


In  the  making  of  groups,  as  well  as  in  all  the  uses  of  plants,  one  must  learn 
to  distinguish  between  contrasts  which  are  harmonious,  and  those  which  are 
absolutely  ircongruous.  Discordant  colors,  irreconcilable  differences  between 
the  abnormal  habits  of  freak  plants  and  the  natural  habits  of  common  plants, 
and  the  discrepancy  of  texture  caused  by  the  juxtaposition  of  plants  having  very 
large  and  those  having  very  small  leaves,  are  all  alike  incongruities.  In  many 
cases,  the  plant  groups  seen  on  lawns  have  more  the  appearance  of  heterogeneous 
collections  than  of  groups.  Furthermore,  unity  requires  that  all  plants  in  any 
one  group  have  one  or  more  similar  characteristics.  Tt  is  comparatively  easy  to 
make  a  selection  of  plants  of  different  form  or  habit  yet  similar  in  value  of  green  and 
perhaps  similar  also  in  texture.  In  such  a  selection,  the  similarity  of  color  and 
texture  serves  to  join  all  the  plants  into  a  unified  group.  A  number  of  similarly 
rounded  plant  forms  having  slightly  different  tones  of  green  may  likewise  be 
selected,  and  in  this  case  their  similarity  of  form  will  serve  to  unify  the  group. 
In  the  use  of  flowering  plants,  it  is  wise  to  employ  but  a  single  color  other  than 
white,  ard  to  use  a  preponderance  of  white  as  the  underlying  element.  Groups 
consisting  of  like  plants  and  tending  to  result  in  mass  effects  are  essentially 
homogeneous.  With  the  introduction  of  unlike  and  contrasting  elements,  however, 
an  intermixture  of  less- definite,  rounded  forms  and  low  foliage  is  necessary,  and, 
while  of  itself  not  especially  evident,  this  intermixture  serves  to  unify  the  group. 
It  is  not  possible  to  build  scenery  by  the  use  of  contrasts  alone. 

Continuous  planting  along  property  lines  or  between  the  several  areas  of  a 
yard  functions  primarily  as  barriers.  The  means  of  enclosure  should  always  be 
effective,  but  the  borders  may  also  be  attractive  and  in  places  even  decorative. 
An  easy  way  to  plan  borders  is  to  begin  by  thinking  of  them  all  as  hedges.  When 
their  extent  has  been  determined,  an  examination  of  the  plan  will  perhaps  enable 
one  to  select  the  points  where  decorative  plants  may  be  used  to  the  best  advantage. 

In  order  to  make  detailed  plans  for  the  borders,  it  is  necessary  to  visualize 
both  the  existing  conditions  and  the  proposed  planting  as  it  will  grow.  One 
must  be  able  to  imagine  the  appearance  of  it  in  order  to  prepare  a  ground  plan 
of  it,  for  that  is  merely  a  record  of  one's  mental  picture  and  a  guide  for  the  actual 
planting  operations.  The  sides  of  each  area  may  be  studied  by  standing  directly 
opposite  each  one  and  sketching  the  effects  proposed  for  any  part  of  its  borders. 
A  sketch  may  be  made  by  only  two  lines,  the  ground  line  and  the  skyline,  and 
in  such  a  sketch  the  space  intervening  represents  the  mass  effect  of  the  planting. 
Any  means  whereby  one  can  picture  more  clearly  the  situation  and  what  he 
would  like  to  make  of  it, — a  rough  sketch,  or  a  more  careful  drawing  of  its  elevations 
and  so  forth, — will  be  helpful.  If  one  has  a  good  imagination,  he  may  be  able  to 
visualize  clearly  the  situation  and  the  desired  effects,  and  so  decide  upon  the 
plants  suitable  for  his  purposes.  As  a  rule  the  borders  should  be  mere  back- 
grounds, but  it  may  be  easier  for  some  to  begin  by  thinking  of  them  as  plain  hedges, 
and  then  to  plan  for  the  diversification  of  the  skyline  or  the  face  of  the  border 
by  inserting  lower-growing,  decorative  plants.  A  general  plan  or  sketch  of  an 
entire  lot  which  indicates  the  location  and  the  outlines  of  the  main  features 
furnishes  some  suggestions  for  the  detailed  plans  for  the  borders,  and  also,  perhaps, 
for  lines  of  view  and  points  for  accent. 

Accentuation  by  means  of  plants,  and  degrees  of  accent  have  already  been 
mentioned  and  discussed  somewhat  abstractly.  But  one  may  ask:  What  relation 


have  the  different  plants  to  the  plan  for  arrangement  further  than  the  mere 
amount  of  ground  space  that  they  occupy?  What  bearing  have  scenic  effects  on 
the  use  of  a  yard?  Why  may  not  a  pretty  effect  in  plants  look  as  well  in  one  place 
as  in  another? 

The  need  of  certain  planting  effects  in  the  front  yard  has  been  explained.  In 
the  case  of  gardens,  there  are  few  persons  who  will  not  understand  the  need  of 
hedges  or  walls  to  make  suitable  backgrounds  for  the  color  of  the  flowers.  They 
will  not,  however,  be  much  concerned  about  the  kinds  of  plants  used  to  enclose 
such  practical  features  as 'laundry  yards  and  vegetable  gardens.  But  the  lawns, 
— whether  including  a  greater  part  of  the  yard  or  merely  an  ample  area  carefully 
reserved  by  the  economical  allotment  of  the  yard  space  and  desirably  enclosed 
to  make  them  somewhat  private  for  purposes  of  family  recreation, — these,  in 
the  popular  conception,  are  but  open  grass  plots  surrounded  by  border  planting. 
Is  there  no  ordering  of  the  scenery  of  this  area  by  which  its  attractiveness  may 
be  increased? 

A  lawn  is  seen  more  from  some  points  of  view  than  from  others.  It  is  seen 
most  from  certain  windows,  porches,  or  terraces  of  a  house,  all  approximating 
the  same  point  of  view,  and  this  view  of  the  lawn  may  be  called  the  prospect 
from  the  house.  This  being  the  case,  the  general  plan  of  the  lawn  should  not 
only  make  for  convenient  access  to  living  rooms,  porches,  and  terraces,  but 
in  outline  and  plan  it  should  look  its  best  from  this  point  of  view.  Even  the 
modeling  of  the  'ground  and  the  details  of  the  scenery  should  be  considered  and 
planned  primarily  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  house.  This  prospect  will  be 
more  pleasing  if  the  full  size  of  the  area  can  be  apparent,  or  if  it  can  be  made  to 
appear  even  larger  than  it  actually  is.  For  a  certainty,  any  details  of  its  plan 
which  might  make  it  appear  smaller  should  be  rejected.  If  the  borders  all  about 
the  lawn  are  alike,  or  are  so  evenly  varied  as  to  produce  no  particular  focalization, 
then  the  center  of  interest  will  be  the  approximate  center  of  the  area.  If  a  single 
conspicuous  plant,  or  a  prominent  group  of  plants,  is  situated  in  the  open  turf 
area  or  in  the  border  planting,  one's  eye  will  unconsciously  fix  upon  that  point, 
and  one's  evaluation  of  the  entire  lawn  will  be  largely  determined  by  the  attri- 
butes of  this  particular  aspect  of  it.  If  the  interest  is  situated  at  the  point  farthest 
from  the  house,  the  greatest  dimensions  of  the  lawn  will  receive  prominence. 
Therefore,  in  the  plans  for  most  yards,  that  corner  of  the  lawn  which  is  in  view 
but  most  remote  from  the  house  should  be  marked  by  the  most  conspicuous 
planting  effects.  In  yards  which  are  very  long  and  narrow,  the  difference  in 
length  between  a  diagonal  and  an  axis  line  is  not  worth  considering.  Therefore, 
in  order  to  fix  upon  a  point  in  the  borders  for  the  best  view,  a  study  of  the  situation 
should  be  made  from  points  just  within  or  just  without  the  house.  The  lawn 
should  be  presented  to  the  best  advantage,  and  the  shape  of  this  area  may  suggest 
that  the  line  of  view  be  directly  to  the  rear,  to  one  of  the  corners,  or  to  the  side 
border.  Again,  in  the  case  of  formal  lawns  or  of  those  of  regular  outlines, 
it  may  seem  best  to  employ  a  balanced  grouping  of  conspicuous  plants — groups 
or  individuals, — in  all  corners  and  about  all  sides.  However,  in  some  formal 
lawns,  and  surely  in  all  lawns  of  informal  character,  it  is  more  pleasing  if  the 
greatest  interest  is  concentrated  at  one  point,  whether  or  not  lesser  points  of 
interest  are  made  at  other  places.  In  most  city  and  suburban  lots  of  rectilinear 
outline,  the  house  will  be  parallel  to  the  lot  lines  and  to  the  lines  of  division  between 


the  several  areas  of  the  yard.  Thus  the  lot  will  also  necessarily  be  parallel  to  the 
axis  of  the  living  room.  Therefore,  from  this  room  and  possibly  also  from  other 
rooms,  a  point  in  the  far  borders  which  is  on  the  same  axis  as  those  rooms  will 
be"plainly  visible  from  both  within  and  just  outside  the  house.  Similarly,  outlooks 
from  porches  or  terraces  toward  the  side  boundary  and  .along  a  line  parallel  with 
the  rear  face  of  the  house  may  also  be  accentuated. 

After  the  position  for  the  most  important  terminus  has  been  determined, 
great  care  should  be  exercised  in  fixing  upon  others.  In  order  to  determine  the 
elements  necessary  for  a  single  good  view,  or  to  plan  the  development  of  several 
points  of  particular  interest  in  the  scenery  of  a  yard,  one  must  first  understand 
something  about  views,  and  recognize  wherein  the  merits  of  views  consist.  Occa- 
sionally one  finds  a  view  which  particularly  appeals  to  him.  It  may  be  a 
scene  in  the  country,  or  an  artificial  one  arranged  on  the  grounds  of  some  resi- 
dence. If  one  tries  to  reproduce  a  prearranged  effect  in  his  own  yard,  he  may  find 
helpful,  though  perhaps  abstract,  suggestions  in  an  analysis  of  good  examples, 
or  even  of  pictures,  of  landscapes. 

When  an  artist  sees  a  view  which  he  wishes  to  reproduce,  he  is  impressed 
primarily  by  some  particular  object  or  by  some  definite  aspect  of  it.  He  takes 
little  or  no  note  of  all  the  accompanying  details,  even  though  these  may  be 
sufficiently  apparent  to  be  evident  at  some  distance.  And,  if  one  stops  to  think 
of  it,  this  is  precisely  the  way  in  which  everyone  sees  a  view.  We  never  see  all 
its  component  parts,  but  only  the  plainly  visible  things  and  the  objects  which 
happen  to  appeal  to  us.  If  an  artist  attempted  to  reproduce  all  the  details,  he  would 
find  it  impossible  to  do  so.  Therefore,  he  expresses  in  detail  only  what  seems 
important  to  him,  and  only  suggests,  in  an  indefinite  way,  what  to  him  appears 
of  secondary  interest.  In  this  way,  the  principal  object  of  interest  is  thrown  into 
prominence.  The  objects  of  lesser  interest  are  so  presented  and  arranged  as  to 
balance  the  interest  that  focuses  on  the  center  of  the  picture.  Of  all  the  space 
included  within  the  frame  of  a  picture,  those  things  of  which  one  really  takes 
note  occupy  but  a  comparatively  small  proportion.  The  indefinite  surrounding  part 
of  a  picture  not  only  furnishes  an  harmonious  setting  for  the  subject,  but  serves 
as  an  insulating  band,  or  zone,  between  the  picture  as  a  whole  and  the  wall  and 
other  nearby  objects. 

In  pictures,  the  interest  is  centered  in  the  foreground,  in  the  middle  ground, 
or  in  the  distance;  and  if  the  chief  point  of  interest  is  in  the  distance,  the  fore- 
ground and  the  middle-ground  details  are  not  emphasized.  In  a  yard  there  is 
usually  opportunity  to  use  a  porch,  a  summerhouse,  or  a  garden  seat  as  a  nearby 
object  of  interest.  In  this  case,  one  is,  in  reality,  dealing  with  a  foreground 
picture.  A  decorative  effect  in  a  far  corner  of  a  lawn  becomes  the  terminus  of 
a  view,  and  the  appropriate  neutral  foreground  to  such  a  view  is  the  lawn. 

Wherever  the  interest  is  to  be  centered,  all  that  is  in  front  of  it,  behind  it,  or 
on  either  side  of  it  should  be  inconspicuous.  If  one  plans  to  develop  a  diagonal 
line  of  view  from  the  house  toward  a  far  corner  of  the  lawn,  there  should  be  nothing 
striking  or  distracting  in  the  borders  or  within  one's  field  of  vision  on  either  side. 
In  order  to  make  good  views,  a  generous  amount  of  indefinite  foliage  must  be 
provided  about  the  centers  of  interest,  wherever  these  may  be  located.  Therefore 
particularly  interesting  single  plants  or  groups  of  plants  should  be  placed  far 


10 

enough  apart  to  insure  their  being  seen  separately  and  to  the  best  advantage 
against  an  ample  background. 

Naturally,  it  is  desirable  to  have  some  reciprocity  of  views  about  the  entire 
area  of  the  private  grounds.  Not  only  from  the  house  to  the  lawns  or  gardens, 
but  also  from  the  lawns  back  to  the  house,  and  particularly  about  the  steps 
marking  the  access  to  the  lawn,  should  the  vista  be  pleasing.  If  there  is  a  summer- 
house  or  paved  area  for  chairs  out  in  the  garden,  an  interesting  glimpse  of  the 
lawn  should  be  provided  therefrom.  Thus,  in  order  to  organize  these  lines  of 
view,  it  is  well  to  indicate  them  on  the  general  plan  by  means  of  lines  and  especially 
to  mark  their  termini  with  arrows.  The  lines  of  view  may  intersect,  but  usually 
the  termini  may  be  kept  well  apart  and  even  entirely  segregated.  This  may  be 
accomplished  by  a  clever  manipulation  of  the  curves  in  the  border  outline,  or 
at  times  by  the  use  of  outstanding  individuals  or  grouped  shrubs.  Frequently 
the  same  point  may  serve  as  a  focus  for  more  than  one  view,  or  the  plants  which 
from  one  point  of  view  are  a  part  of  one  composition  may  be  made  to  combine 
effectively  also  with  those  seen  primarily  from  another  viewpoint.  From  any 
place  about  the  house,  in  the  gardens,  or  on  the  lawns  where  one  is  likely  to  sit 
down  or  loiter,  and  thus  to  take  particular  notice  of  that  which  is  about  him, 
the  scenery  should  be  of  special  interest.  The  planting  of  the  yard  should  be 
devised  with  this  in  mind.  However,  in  any  one  direction,  but  one  picture 
should  appear.  While  each  bit  of  artificial  scenery  should  be  some  what  different, 
it  should  not  be  markedly  unlike  the  rest.  The  planting  schemes  of  a  yard  need 
not  be  intricate  to  be  attractive;  and  whether  or  not  there  are  many  studied 
views,  a  yard  will  always  be  more  interesting,  if  from  one  point  of  view,  there  is 
a  vista  which  is  unquestionably  more  attractive  than  any  of  the  rest.  A  view 
across  the  longest  stretch  of  greensward  is  the  most  characteristic  of  lawn  scenery 
and  is  usually  the  most  impressive. 

Detailed  methods  of  planning  pictures  in  the  borders  involve  many  of  the 
suggestions  already  given  in  the  discussion  of  plant  characteristics  and  in  the 
explanations  of  the  kinds  and  degrees  of  accent  produced  by  individual  plants 
and  by  combinations  of  plants.  In  mass  planting,  however,  the  characteristics 
which  are  most  evident  are  those  which  are  seen  silhouetted  against  the  sky, — 
in  other  words,  that  part  of  any  plant  which  rises  above  the  tops  of  the  flanking 
masses.  The  suggestion  for  studying  these  border  effects  in  outline  has  already 
been  made.  Perhaps  by  now  it  is  evident  that  if,  between  focuses,  the  skyline 
of  the  border  follows  an  undulating  and  somewhat  indefinite  line,  and  that  if, 
at  these  focuses,  the  skyline  rises  in  rounded,  columnar,  conical,  or  pointed  forms, 
then,  the  forms  employed,  together  with  their  degrees  of  definiteness,  their  size, 
their  difference  in  height  and  their  contrasting  characteristics  in  varied  combi- 
nations will  determine  the  degree  of  accent  they  produce  in  the  silhouette  of  the 
border.  On  the  contrary,  any  marked  depression  in  the  skyline  of  a  border  will 
also  produce  an  accent,  especially  if  beyond  it  the  adjoining  area  is  comparatively 
open.  Larger  openings  in  the  borders,  for  the  enjoyment  of  distant  views,  should 
be  flanked  by  indefinite  foliage,  preferably  that  of  trees.  In  small  yards  it  is 
undesirable  thus  to  open  the  borders  on  the  lines  of  the  longest  views  from  the 
interior,  as,  by  comparison  with  the  distance,  these  views  are  thereby  made  to 
appear  shorter,  and  the  apparent  size  of  the  yard  is  also  reduced. 


11 

Decorative  effects  in  the  borders  may  be  made  without  any  variation  of  their 
skylines.  Low-growing  but  distinctive  individual  plants  or  groups  of  plants,  or 
the  col  or  of  flowering  or  fruiting  vegetation,  may  be  used  in  many  ways  to  effect 
a  focab'zation  of  the  desired  character  and  degree.  Of  course,  if  transient  effects, 
such  as  flowers,  are  used,  then  plants  which  flower  at  other  seasons,  or  which  have 
color  in  the  autumn,  must  be  included,  or  some  other  means  must  be  devised  by 
which  the  desired  effects  can  be  sustained  throughout  the  year.  In  the  use  of 
contrasts  between  plants  of  definite  form  or  habit,  one  must  consider  also  the 
contrast  of  his  proposed  group  in  relation  to  that  of  its  background,  which  may 
be  a  wall,  a  hedge,  or  a  free-growing  border.  If  color  is  used  as  an  accent,  it  should 
be  kept  below  the  skyline.  With  the  variety  of  plants  that  is  available,  very 
strong  focalization  can  be  made  in  the  face  of  a  border.  If  such  conspicuous 
groups  or  combinations  rise  above  the  prevailing  line  of  the  borders,  then  the 
effect  is  thereby  increased  if  not  actually  doubled. 

Some  persons  delight  in  studying  the  seasonal  effects  in  color.  These  will  find 
it  possible  to  employ  color  for  all  the  accents;  to  express  thereby  the  desired  degree 
of  focalization  at  each  terminus;  and  to  select  and  to  combine  plants  so  as  to  sustain 
a  scheme  of  color  accent  during  the  entire  growing  season.  In  winter,  however, 
such  planting  is  likely  to  be  uninteresting,  and  it  is  then  that  we  especially  appre- 
ciate any  attractiveness  that  may  be  possible  in  the  plantations.  Hence  it  is 
well  to  combine  with  color  plants  some  permanent  effects  in  woody  plants, 
particularly  in  evergreens.  Especially  should  one  endeavor  to  select,  for  both 
accentuation  and  background,  those  shrubs  and  trees  whose  growth  habits  are 
sufficiently  dense  to  avoid  a  thin  and  scraggly  appearance  in  the  winter.  While 
all  plants  do  not  adjust  themselves  to  shearing,  most  of  them  may  be  made  to 
grow  more  densely  either  by  moderate  shearing  or  by  pruning  the  "leaders." 
Pinching  off  the  leaders  forces  the  lateral  branches,  and  in  some  cases  also  develops 
more  branches.  However,  this  process  does  not  necessarily  materially  affect  the 
free-growing  habit  or  the  general  appearance  of  the  plant,  except  that  it  encourages 
compactness  and  restrains  growth.  Evergreens,  especially  the  hemlock,  are  always 
desirable  in  the  borders.  At  times  the  Douglas  fir  and  some  of  the  pines  may  also 
be  suitable.  As  backgrounds  for  color,  these  evergreens  are  most  desirable,  and 
in  the  winter  they  are  always  appreciated.  A  varied  skyline  may  be  developed 
from  them,  either  by  planting  different  sizes  at  the  start  or  by  topping  and  other- 
wise shaping  them. 

The  most  pleasing  borders  for  lawns,  even  if  somewhat  small,  must  include 
some  trees.  A  border  consisting  entirely  of  shrubs  is  very  monotonous  indeed. 
Trees  in  the  borders  require  somewhat  more  space  than  do  shrubs,  but  they  are 
well  worth  the  additional  ground  space.  Those  species  of  trees  should  be  selected 
which  branch  to  the  ground  and  thus,  within  a  reasonable  time,  will  of  themselves 
make  a  solid  wall  of  foliage.  Very  few  trees  and  shrubs  do  well  growing  close 
together,  but  in  order  to  combine  them  successfully  it  is  only  necessary  to  be 
forewarned  of  the  difficulty,  and  to  proceed  advisedly  and  carefully.  Plants  which 
naturally  grow  in  the  shade  always  do  better  in  close  proximity  than  do  those 
requiring  the  full  sunlight,  and  of  course  most  plants  are  of  the  sun-loving  type. 
Rapid-growing  trees  are  likely  to  have  many  roots,  and  thus  will  starve  out  less 
robust  plants  whose  roots  are  competing  in  the  same  soil. 


12 

If  the  trees  overtop  them,  the  nearby  plants  are  likewise  less  able  to  compete 
for  existence.  Deeper  soil  in  the  beds  is  of  course  one  remedy,  but  a  careful  selec- 
tion of  the  plants  to  be  combined  is  a  better  course  and  promises  greater  success. 
Trees  which  are  intended  to  overtop  shrubs  should  have  but  a  thin  canopy  of 
foliage  and  thus  cast  little  or  no  shade.  Shrubs  requiring  full  sunlight  should  not 
be  planted  so  close  to  trees  that  the  trees,  when  mature,  will  shade  them.  There 
are,  however,  several  native  shrubs  and  small  trees  which  thrive  under  heavy 
shading  and  mingle  their  branches  and  foliage  with  those  of  the  adjacent  trees 
without  giving  any  effect  of  crowding.  Among  these  the  witch-hazel  is  best,  though 
the  viburnums  and  cornuses  also  do  fairly  well.  Most  trees  look  best  if  they  are 
clothed  from  the  ground  up  with  their  own  foliage,  and  used  in  this  fashion  they 
interrupt  the  monotony  of  the  shrubs  more  effectively.  Shrubs  may  be  tempo- 
rarily planted  about  trees  for  the  better  appearance  of  a  newly  planted  border, 
but  if  this  is  done,  they  should  be  taken  out  before  they  crowd  the  lower  branches 
of  the  trees. 

Trees  are  essential  in  a  border,  as  both  their  foliage  and  their  forms  as  a  whole 
contribute  to  produce  an  expression  of  larger  scale  and  a  better  quality  of  back- 
ground. Therefore,  in  some  manner,  provision  should  be  made  for  them.  With 
little  difficulty,  and  with  even  less  care  than  would  be  necessary  for  shrubs  occupy- 
ing the  same  space,  trees  may  be  trained  to  grow  more  laterally  along  the  line 
of  the  border,  rather  than  forward  over  the  lawn.  The  leaders  of  branches  may 
be  pruned  at  any  distance  from  the  trunk  of  the  tree.  This  may  even  be  done 
occasionally  to  all  branches  on  one  or  more  sides  of  the  tree  and  without  noticeably 
changing  its  appearance,  if  the  pruning  is  done  in  a  somewhat  even  manner. 
Trees  planted  within  a  few  feet  of  a  boundary  fence  will,  of  course,  spread  over 
the  fence;  but  neighbors  seldom  object  to  this.  If  a  street  adjoins,  it  is  possible 
to  make  the  border  trees  serve  also  as  street  trees,  or  at  least  to  so  space  them 
that  they  shall  not  interfere  with  other  street  trees.  Street  trees  may  be  selected 
to  combine  as  they  grow  with  the  plants  within  the  yard.  But  whether  trees  com- 
pose a  majority  of  the  border  material  or  only  a  few  are  included  in  the  borders 
their  effect  should  not  be  entirely  omitted.  If  the  largest  trees  cannot  be  used,  then 
smaller-growing  kinds  should  be  selected. 

A  brief  description  of  the  various  kinds  of  border  planting  should  call  attention 
to  the  possibilities  and  the  advantages  of  hedges.  In  the  popular  conception,  hedges 
are  from  two  to  four  feet  high,  are  usually  scraggly  and  thin  at  the  base,  and  are 
ordinarily  composed  of  barberry  or  privet.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  hedges  may  be 
grown  to  almost  any  desired  height  or  width,  according  to  the  choice  made  for 
them  of  trees  or  shrubs,  and  according  to  the  spacing  and  trimming  they  receive. 
Many  small  city  yards  may  appropriately  be  enclosed  by  hedges  of  tall-growing 
shrubs  or  small  trees,  in  order  to  save  space.  An  inexpensive,  woven-wire  fence 
on  the  outside,  through  which  the  hedge  will  grow,  will  soon  be  hidden,  but  re- 
mains to  protect  the  hedge  at  the  base  and  to  make  a  more  effective  barrier.  The 
plants  may  be  set  in  single,  double,  or  triple  rows,  or  in  as  many  rows  as  are  re- 
quired, in  accordance  with  the  habits  of  the  plants  used,  to  produce  the  desired 
width.  A  row  of  taller-growing  plants  may  be  planted  in  the  center  with  rows  of 
lower-growing  and  more  spreading  plants  on  either  side.  Similar  or  different  kinds 
of  plants,  as  are  thought  suitable,  may  likewise  be  used.  A  hedge  may  be  trimmed 
to  a  square,  a  rectangular,  a  truncated,  or  a  rounded  section,  or  it  may  even  be 


13 

allowed  to  grow  with  little  or  no  trimming.  If  a  hedge  about  an  entire  area  seems 
monotonous,  one  may  arrange  single  plants  or  groups  in  some  or  all  of  the  corners. 
In  areas  not  large  enough  to  afford  space  for  a  continuous  informal  border,  masses 
may  be  employed  in  the  corners,  and  on  the  sides  hedges  may  be  used  to  connect 
them.  Most  persons  realize  the  value  of  hedges  in  gardens;  but  few  recognize 
that  they  are  very  economical  borders  for  small  areas.  Thus,  considering  their 
uses  and  the  varied  effects  which  may  be  obtained  with  them,  this  method  of 
planting  is  worthy  of  observation  and  study. 

While  it  is  scarcely  possible,  by  means  of  written  descriptions,  to  teach  persons 
to  select  and  to  arrange  plants  successfully,  a  few  suggestions  can  be  given  which 
may  encourage  closer  observation.  First  of  all,  a*  few  things  about  each  plant 
must  be  known  or  ascertained  before  any  kind  can  be  selected  for  particular  uses 
or  definite  positions  and  before  it  can  be  so  spaced  into  or  combined  with  a  group, 
a  hedge,  or  a  larger  plantation,  as  to  produce  certain  preconceived  effects  in 
accordance  with  a  rearranged  plan.  If,  because  of  its  form  or  habit,  one  has 
selected  a  certain  plant  for  a  specific  position  in  the  plan  of  a  yard,  he  must  know 
whether,  in  that  position,  it  will  receive  enough  sunlight,  whether  the  proposed 
position  will  be  too  cold  and  exposed  or  too  dry  for  it,  and  whether  the  eventual 
spread  of  its  branches  will  necessitate  some  allowance  in  order  to  space  it  properly. 
Most  plants  thrive  under  normal  conditions,  and  with  a  more  detailed  knowledge 
of  these,  and,  in  fact,  of  all  plants,  better  success  may  be  attained.  The  space 
required  by  a  plant  may  be  ascertained  by  observing  the  habits  and  spread  of 
mature  plants  of  the  same  kind;  one  may  also  consult  a  nurseryman.  According 
to  these  data,  plants  may  be  so  spaced  as  to  merge  closely,  or  slightly,  or  to  have 
any  required  distance  between  them  at  maturity. 

In  preparing  a  plan  for  border  planting,  or  in  staking  out  on  the  ground  the 
positions  for  the  plants,  it  is  best  to  arrange  first  the  distinctive,  individual  plants 
and  groups  which  are  to  mark  the  focal  points  in  the  border.  Then  the  less-con- 
spicuous plants  which  are  to  connect  the  focal  points  and  to  fill  in  the  intervening 
spaces  in  the  border  may  be  planned.  The  spacing  of  groups  which  are  a  part 
of  the  borders  should  be  done  very  carefully,  and  in  a  similar  manner  to  that 
described  for  outstanding  groups  on  the  lawn.  If  the  trees  or  shrubs  intended  to 
be  prominent  are  low-growing,  they  should  be  set  forward,  and  the  group  should 
be  brought  to  the  edge  .of  the  border;  on  the  other  hand,  if  they  are  tall-growing 
and  are  intended  to  rise  from  the  mass  about  them,  they  should  be  placed  further 
toward  the  back,  and  the  indefinite  mass  planting  of  the  border  should  be  con- 
tinued across  in  front  of  them.  Deciduous  plants,  especially  those  of  a  spreading 
habit,  should  not  be  used  in  conjunction  with  evergreens,  as  they  crowd  the 
evergreens,  shade  and  kill  their  lower  branches,  and  in  the  winter  have  a  very 
shabby  appearance.  Evergreens  and  deciduous  trees  which  are  intended  to  "face" 
themselves  (to  have  no  shrubs  in  front  of  them)  should  be  placed  near  the  front 
of  the  border,  or  within  such  a  distance  of  it  that  the  branches  will  eventually 
spread  and  join  it.  Generally  speaking,  the  trees  and  the  larger  shrubs  which  are 
to  be  incorporated  therein  should  be  placed  nearer  the  front  or  the  back  of  the 
border,  rather  than  midway  between  its  edges.  In  a  mixture  of  evergreens  and 
deciduous  plants,  only  those  deciduous  varieties  should  be  selected  which  will 
not  spread  unduly.  If  they  are  intended  to  merge  with  the  evergreens,  however, 


14 

only  those  deciduous  plants  which  are  sufficiently  dense  to  have  in  winter  an 
appearance  similar  to  that  in  summer  should  be  chosen. 

While  planning  or  staking  out  the  plants,  one  should  constantly  bear  in  mind 
the  spread  of  each  plant  at  its  maturity,  and  the  immediate  appearance  of  a 
plantation  should  always  be  sacrificed  for  its  future  effect.  Plantations  made  for 
immediate  effect  will  require  annual  thinning  or  replanting  to  some  extent  for 
at  least  ten  years.  On  the  other  hand,  if  one  wishes  to  save  expense,  and  can 
afford  to  wait  three  or  four  years  for  reasonably  good  appearances,  then  with 
plants  spaced  upon  the  basis  of  a  permanent  plan,  he  will  be  surprised  to  find 
what  a  small  number  are  actually  required  to  plant  his  yard  effectively.  Of  course, 
each  kind  of  plant  requires  a  different  spacing,  and  shrubs  spread  and  grow  to  a 
satisfactory  degree  of  maturity  faster  than  do  trees.  But  all  the  plants  of  a  border 
will  do  best,  and  in  the  end  make  a  better  looking  border,  if  so  spaced  as 
to  barely  merge  when  their  ultimate  lateral  growth  is  attained. 

Trees  mature  more  slowly  than  do  shrubs.  Furthermore,  they  make  very  little 
lateral  growth  until  their  rapid  upward  growth  is  completed.  For  example,  an 
American  elm  twenty-five  feet  high  rarely  has  a  spread  of  more  than  ten  feet  in 
diameter,  but  of  course  this  tree  grows  very  rapidly,  and,  as  it  is  not  very  dense, 
and  also  eventually  spreads  widely,  it  is  not  good  for  borders  in  small  yards.  The 
English  beech  is  slow  growing,  but  it  spreads  laterally  when  but  a  young  tree  and 
with  but  little  training  may  be  restrained  from  spreading  unduly  over  the  lawn. 
The  American  beech  is  a  taller  tree  than  the  English  variety,  and  not  so  dense. 
Both  these  trees  are  very  good  for  use  in  a  border,  especially  because  they  will 
thrive  under  somewhat  shaded  and  crowded  conditions.  In  these  respects  hem- 
locks are  also  well  qualified,  but  it  is  well  to  keep  spreading  and  strong-growing 
shrubs  and  trees  from  crowding  them  too  closely.  However,  as  tall  trees  grow 
more  slowly  than  shrubs,  it  is  customary  to  fill  in  about  them  with  shrubs  for 
temporary  appearance.  In  this  case  the  trees  should  be  carefully  located  with 
respect  to  their  future  growth,  and  the  outline  of  the  border  should  be  delineated 
as  intended  for  its  future  development.  Then  the  space  intervening,  and,  in  fact, 
all  the  area  about  the  tree,  should  be  filled  in  with  the  temporary  shrubs.  One 
must  be  sure  to  pull  out  all  these  shrubs  before  they  crowd  the  tree  or  the  other  per- 
manent plants,  and  if  this  is  likely  to  be  neglected,  the  temporary  plants  had 
better  not  be  used. 

When  the  distinctive  groups  and  individual  trees  and  shrubs  have  been  located 
and  staked  about  the  lawn,  the  general  outline  of  the  border  may  next  be  deter- 
mined at  the  more  important  points.  The  entire  outline  of  the  borders  should 
in  general  be  a  reasonable  one:  it  should  be  consistent  with  the  size  of  the  area; 
it  should  be  suggested  by  the  form  of  the  area  and  in  relation  to  the  adjoining 
areas;  it  should  be  adapted  to  the  focal  points  and  to  the  lines  of  view. 
The  outline  should  also  be  smoothly  curved,  and  should  define  not  an  angular  but  a. 
pleasing  form.  The  curves  should  not  all  be  similar;  some  of  them  should  be 
larger  and  some  smaller,  with  the  smaller  curves  not  so  narrowly  and  deeply  in- 
dented as  to  be  eventually  obliterated  by  the  future  growth  of  the  plants.  Usually 
it  is  easier  to  work  out  the  first  general  scheme  for  planting  on  the  plan  of  the 
entire  yard,  or  on  a  tracing  thereof,  as  by  this  means  one  can  get  a  conception 
of  the  entire  yard  at  a  glance.  If  planning  on  paper  proves  difficult,  one  may, 
after  determining  the  main  points  and  outlines,  turn  to  the  yard  itself,  and  work 


15 

out  the  details  with  its  actual  conditions  about  him.  One  way  to  study  the  general 
spacing  of  the  plants  on  the  ground  is  to  represent  the  various  kinds  by  stakes  of 
different  colors,  or  of  distinctly  different  lengths,  or  otherwise  differentiated.  The 
effects  of  the  different  kinds  of  plants  in  the  various  positions  may  thus  be  clearly 
visualized.  Some  means  should  be  adopted  whereby  one  can  study  his  planting  at 
leisure  and  can  visualize  its  relation  to  the  other  plants  already  growing  on  and 
about  the  yard.  When  all  has  been  most  carefully  studied  and  checked,  the  holes 
may  be  dug  and  the  plants  set  without  the  necessity  of  resetting,  loss  of  time,  and 
perhaps  injury  to  the  plants  themselves. 

The  planting  scheme  for  a  yard  should  also  be  studied  in  some  of  its  general 
aspects.  Perhaps  when  the  detailed  plans  for  planting  in  the  several  areas  have 
been  prepared,  the  entire  plans  should  be  reviewed  and  checked  and  possibly 
slightly  revised,  before  final  decisions  are  made.  This  will  further  assure  the 
production  of  the  most  pleasing  entire  effect.  For  example,  within  any  one  area 
all  the  plants  should  be  arranged  in  a  somewhat  balanced  manner.  One  side  of 
a  lawn  should  not  be  planted  with  but  one  combination  of  plants  while  the  plant- 
ing along  its  other  sides  is  made  up  entirely  of  other  kinds  of  vegetation.  Were 
the  planting  correctly  done,  some  of  the  kinds  occurring  in  larger  masses  on 
one  side  would  also  be  used  in  one  or  two  smaller  masses  on  the  other  side.  Plants  in 
any  degree  conspicuous  should  be  balanced, — unsymmetrically  of  course, —  on 
all  view  lines.  This  arrangement  will  make  them  fit  well  into  the  composition 
of  the  whole,  and  will  produce  the  desired  focalization  at  the  termini.  Each  of 
the  several  areas  should  be  so  planted  as  to  contribute  to  the  interior  scenery  and 
to  the  effects  suitable  for  that  area  and  in  pleasing  contrast  with  the  other  areas. 
Nevertheless,  the  plants  selected  for  the  various  parts  of  a  yard  should  not  produce 
effects  so  radically  different  as  to  seem  to  be  parts  of  different  properties.  Some 
plants  of  the  same  kind  should  be  used  in  varying  degrees  in  all  of  the  areas,  and 
the  remainder  of  the  plants  of  the  same  scheme  should  also  be  somewhat  similar. 
The  appearance  of  a  yard  will  be  determined,  to  a  large  extent,  by  the  vegeta- 
tion employed  and  by  the  skill  with  which  it  is  arranged,  assuming,  of  course,  that 
all  has  been  based  upon  a  carefully  planned  arrangement.  Small  yards  should, 
if  possible,  be  decorated  with  some  architectural  features  which  are  also  apparently 
useful.  While  expensive  at  the  start,  they  are  permanent  features  and  also  con- 
tribute in  the  summer  to  the  pleasureable  life  in  the  yard  and  are  interesting  to 
look  at  in  the  winter.  But  the  planting  is  likely  to  be  the  dominant  element  in  the 
yard,  and  the  general  effects  are  the  most  noticeable  and  the  most  important. 
At  the  very  beginning,  then,  one  should  be  careful  to  think  in  terms  of  plants 
which  will  in  the  end  be  suitable  for  a  particular  house  and  for  a  particular  situa- 
tion. He  should  determine  the  approximate  quantity  of  evergreens  necessary  to 
make  a  setting  that  is  in  character  with  the  house  under  consideration,  and  he 
should  decide  upon  the  amount  of  care  he  can  give  the  plants  in  the  yard, 
especially  if  herbaceous  plants  are  to  be  included.  Thus  in  a  general  way  the 
proportions  of  evergreen,  deciduous,  and  garden  plants,  or  any  others  materially 
affecting  the  final  appearance  or  the  rost  of  upkeep,  should  be  determined.  Start- 
ing with  a  correct  estimate  of  the  essentials  of  the  planting  and  of  all  requirements 
called  for  by  the  general  scheme  and  with  an  understanding  of  what  is  suitable, 
one  should  carefully  adhere  both  to  his  premise  and  to  the  intelligent  application 
of  planning  principles.  The  planting  in  a  yard  should  not  look  more  pretentious 


16 

than  the  house.    The  house  and  yard  should  rather  appear  to  belong  to  one  an- 
other, both  in  plan  and  in  general  aspect. 

A  broad  effect  of  greenery  should  always  predominate,  even  during  the  season 
of  flowers.  If  the  scheme  is  confined  to  simplified  and  uncomplex  effects,  a  more 
general  beauty  will  result.  It  is  not  possible  to  include  in  a  small  yard  the  great 
variety  of  features  or  the  varied  scenic  effects  which  are  possible  in  the  space  of 
larger  yards.  It  is  possible,  however,  by  simple  means,  to  so  plan  and  plant  small 
yards  as  to  give  them  a  distinctive  style  and  beauty.  They  may  have  a  homelike 
and  attractive  appearance,  and  be  fully  as  interesting  as  are  large  residences. 
But  small  homes  are  intrinsically  different  from  large  ones,  and  their  beauty,  to 
be  satisfactory,  must  therefore  also  be  a  different  beauty,  and  their  own. 


14  DAY  USE 

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i'O 


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